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NEW    NORMAL 

QUESTION  BOOK 


COMPRISING   QUESTIONS  AND   ANSWERS 
ON  ALL  COMMON    SCHOOL  STUDIES 


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BY 

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TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 


PAGE. 

Preface 11 

Questions  on  Orthographr 15 

Answers  to  Questions  on  Orthography 18 

Questions  on  Heading 32 

Answers  to  Questions  on  Reading 35 

Questions  on  Arithmetic 50 

Answers  to  Questions  on  Arithmetic 58 

Questions  on  Grammar 89 

Answers  to  Questions  on  Grammar 100 

Questions  on  United  States  History 142 

Answers  to  Questions  on  United  States  History ^ 158 

Questions  on  Physiology 209 

Answers  to  Questions  on  Physiology 219 

Questions  on  Theory  and  Practice  of  Teaching 258 

Answers  to  Questions  on  Theory  and  Practice  of  Teaching 262 

Questions  on  Mathematical  Geography 280 

Answers  to  Questions  on  Mathematical  Geography 285 

Questions  on  Political  Geography 298 

Answers  to  Questions  on  Political  Geography- 304 

Questions  on  Physical  Geography 320 

Answers  to  Questions  on  Physical  Geography 328 

Questions  on  Civil  Government 358 

Answers  to  Questions  on  Civil  Government 364 

(13) 


14  CONTENTS. 

PAGE. 

Questions  on  English  Literature 378 

Answers  to  Questions  on  English  Literature- 381 

Questions  on  American  Literature 395 

Answers  to  Questions  on  American  Literature 397 

Questions  on  Penmanship ~ 403 

Answers  to  Questions  on  Penmanship .• 404 

Questions  on  Parliamentary  Rules  ~ 408 

Answers  to  Questions  on  Parliamentary  Kules~ 411 

Questions  on  Psychology  and  Pedagogy 424 

Answers  to  Questions  on  Psychology  and  Pedagogy 430 

Test  Problems 446 

Answers  to  Test  Problems 450 

APPENDIX. 

Rules  to  be  Observed  at  Examinations 457 

Hints  on  the  Preparation  of  Manuscripts 460 

Programme 465 

Outline  of  Percentage 467 

Cartography. 471 

Scale  of  Criticism 475 

Grammar 479 

Outline  on  Theory  and  Practice  of  Teaching 485 

Topic  List  for  the  Study  of  Geography 489 


THE  NORMAL  QUESTION  BOOK. 


QUESTIONS  ON  ORTHOGRAPHY 


1.  Define  Orthography. 

2.  What  is  an  elementary  sound  ? 

3.  How  many  elementary  sounds  in  the  English 
Slanguage,  and  how  are  they  represented? 

4.  Give  their  classification. 

5.  Define  vocals,  sub-vocals  and  aspirates,  and 
explain  the  terms  correlatives,  liquids,  coalescents, 
explodents  and  continuents. 

6.  What  is  a  letter? 

7.  How  are  letters  divided? 

8.  What  further  division  can  be  made  ? 

9.  Name  and  define  the  vowels  and  consonants. 

10.  When  are  w  and  y  vowels  ? 

11.  How  are  consonants  distinguished? 

12.  Name  and  define  the  semi- vowels  and  mutes. 

13.  What  do  you  understand  by  the  liquids? 

14.  How  do  letters  differ  in  the  variety  of  their 
representation  ? 

(15) 


16  THE  NORMAL   QUESTION  BOOK. 

15.  Of  what  uses  are  silent  letters? 

16.  When  are  letters  said  to  be  long  and  when 
short  f 

17.  How  do  letters  combine  to  form  sounds? 

18.  What  is  the  name  of  a  letter? 

19.  What  is  the  power  of  a  letter? 

20.  When  two  or  more  letters  unite  what  do  they 
form? 

21.  What  is  a  final 'letter? 

22.  How  are  vowels  united? 

23.  Name  and  define  the  classes  of  diphthongs  and 
triphthongs. 

24.  How  are  consonants  united? 

25.  Do  vowel  and  consonant  sounds  unite? 

26.  Define  digraph  and  trigraph. 

27.  What  is  a  syllable? 

28.  What  is  the  essential  part  of  a  syllable? 

29.  Of  what  may  a  syllable  consist  ? 

30.  Give  a  model  for  analyzing  syllables. 

31.  What  is  a  word? 

32.  How  are  words  classified? 

33.  What  is  accent? 

34.  What  is  an  accented  syllable? 

35.  How  is  accent  denoted? 

36.  What  does  a  difference  of  accent  sometime* 
serve  to  do? 

37.  What  difference  is  found  in  the  accentuation 
of  compound  words? 

38.  When  is  the  hyphen  generally  used  between 
the  parts  of  a  compound  word,  and  when  is  it  com* 
monly  omitted? 

39.  What  words  have  an  accent? 

40.  Which  may  the  accented  syllable  be? 


ORTHOGRAPHY.  17 

11.  How  many  and  what  kinds  of  accents  are 
there  ? 

42.  Mention  the  significant  parts  of  a  word. 

43.  What  is-a  root? 

44.  Define  prefix  and  suffix. 

45.  How  would  you  analyze  a  word  according  to 
Its  significant  parts  ? 

46.  What  is  pronunciation? 

47.  What  is  spelling? 

48.  Name  and  define  the  kinds  of  spelling. 

49.  Give  rules  for  spelling. 

60.  Give  a  method  of  orthographic  parsing. 


18  THE  NORMAL  QUESTION  BOOK. 


ANSWERS  TO  QUESTIONS  ON  ORTHOGRAPHY. 


1.  Orthography  treats  of  elementary  sounds,  let- 
syllables  and  spelling. 


2.  An  elementary  sound  is  the  simplest  sound  of 
the  language. 

8.  Forty-one.*    These  sounds  are  represented  by 
twenty-six  letters  called  the  English  Alphabet. 

4.  These  sounds  are  divided  into  throe 
sub-vocals  and  aspirates. 

CHART  OF  THE  ELEMENTARY  SOUNDS 

LONG  VOCALS.,  SHORT  VOCALS. 

1.    e,  as  in  me,  eve.  9.    I,  as  in  ill,  it. 


2. 

e, 

« 

serge,  verge. 

10. 

£     " 

ell,  let. 

3. 

a, 

t< 

aim,  ale. 

11. 

6     lt 

odd,  not. 

4. 

^ 

u 

air,  care. 

12. 

tt,    " 

up,  sup. 

5. 

a, 

a 

arm,  farm. 

13. 

a,  « 

add,  sad. 

6. 

6, 

u 

or,  for. 

14. 

a,    u 

ask,  task. 

7. 

«> 

it 

oak,  no. 

15. 

V,    * 

full,  pulL 

a 

°, 

tl 

ooze,  do. 

*Authorities  differ  as  to  the  number  of  elementary  sounds.    From  to6 
works  which  we  have  consulted,  we  find  the  number  given  varying 
forty  to  forty-four. 


ORTHOGRAPHY.  19 

DIPHTHONGS. 

16.    \  as  in  ice,  lie.  18,    u,  as  in  mute,  cube. 

.«     fti,   "   oil,  boil.  19.    on,   "    out,  sound. 

SUB-VOCALS.—  CorreJffJLwtss. 

20.  b,  as  in  boy,  ebb. 

21.  d,  "  did,  rod. 

22.  g,  "  go,  rag. 

23.  g,  "  gem,  judge. 

24.  v,  "  veer,  valve. 

25.  th,  "  tbis,  breathe. 

26.  z,  "  zone?  zeal. 

27.  zh,  "  azure,  seizure 


SUB-VOCALS.— 

28.  1,  as  in  lo,  will. 

29.  r,      "    row,  roar. 

30.  m9    "    moon,  home. 

81.  n,     "    no,  moon. 

82.  ng,  "     sing,  ring. 

SUB-VOCALS.—  Coakscenttk 

83.  w,  as  in  we,  wit. 

S4«  y>    u  yet>  y°u- 

ASPIRATES.—  Exphdenfo. 
85.  p,  as  in  pin,  pipe. 

36.  t,      "    till,  spot. 

37.  k,     "    kick,  neck. 

38.  ch,    "    church,  which. 

ASPIRATES.  —  ContinwMte. 

39.  f,  as  in  fife,  stiff. 

40.  th,    "    think,  breatb. 

41.  s,      "    see,  pass. 

42.  sh,    <4    shine,  wish. 


29  THE  NORMAL   QUESTION  BOOK. 

43.  h,      "    he,  hat. 

44.  wh,  "    whence,  what. 

5.  The  vocals  consist  of  pure  tone  only.    The 
suh-vocals  consist  of  tone  united  with  breath.    The 
aspirates  consist  of  pure  breath  only.     Correlatives 
are  so  called  because  each  pair  is  formed  with  the 
same  position  of  the  organs.    Liquids  are  so  called 
because  they  flow  readily  into  other  sounds.     Coal- 
escents  are  so  called  because  they  unite  with  the 
sounds  of  other  letters.    Explodents  are  so  called 
because  they  are  incapable  of  prolongation.     Con- 
tinuants are  so  called  because  they  are  capable  ol 
prolongation. 

6.  A  letter  is  a  character  that  stands  for  a  sound 
of  the  human  voice  used  in  speaking. 

7.  Letters  are  divided, — 

(a)  In  respect  to  their  forms,  into  capital  and 

small  letters. 

(b)  In  respect  to  the  sounds  they  represent, 

into  vowels  and  consonants. 

8.  The  forms  of  letters  may  be  divided  as  to 
(a)  Varieties  into 

1.  Italic. 

2.  Roman. 

3.  gj/rf  jjnglteh. 


ORTHOGRAPHY.  21 

(b)  Sizes  into 

i.  Great  Primer. 

2,  Columbian, 

3.  English. 

4.  Pica. 

6.  Small  Pica. 

6.   Long  Primer. 

7.  Bourgeois. 

8.  Brevier. 

9.  Minion. 
10.  Nonpareil 

11.  Agate. 
11.  P«*rl. 
13.  Diamond. 

14.     BRILLIANT. 

A«  to  sounds,  letters  are  divided  into  vowels  and 
consonants. 

9.  The  vowels  represent  pure  vocal  sounds.  Tkft 
vowels  are  a,  e,  i,  o,  u,  and  sometimes  w  and  y. 

The  consonants  represent  sub-vocal  sounds  and 
aspirates.  The  consonants  are  b,  c,  d,  f,  g,  h,  j,  k, 
I,  m,  n,  p,  q,  r,  a,  t,  v,  w,  x,  y,  z. 

10.  W  and  y  sometimes  represent  vocals,  and 
are  then  vowels. 

11.  Consonants  are  distinguished, 

f  Semi-vowels  and 
-\Mutes. 

12.  Semi-vowels  may  represent  sounds  without 
aid  of  a  vowel.    They  are  f,  h,  j,  1,  m,  n,  r,  s,  v,  x, 
z,  and  c  and  g  soft.     Mutes  (b,  d,  k,  p,  q,  t,  and  g 
bard)  can  not  be  sounded  without  the  aid  of  a 
vowel. 


22  THE   NORMAL   QUESTION 

13.  L,  m,  n,  and  r,  are  called  liquids,  because  th« 
sounds  represented  by  them  flow  readily  into  simi« 
lar  or  other  sounds. 

14.  (a)  Generally  a  letter  represents  a  peculiar 
souncL 

(b)  Some  letters  represent  more  than  one 

sound. 

(c)  Sometimes  different  letters  represent  the 

same  sound. 

(d)  Sometimes  a  letter  is  used  that  does  not 

represent  any  sound. 

15.  Silent  letters  are  used — 

(a)  To  modify  the  sounds  of  other  Ietters0 

(b)  To  denote  the  origin  or  definition  of  the 

word. 

16.  A  letter  is  said  to  be  long  when  its  sound  can 
be  protracted  at  will,  as  a  in  say — aye. 

A  letter  is  said  to  be  short  when  the  sound 
represented  by  it  can  not  be  protracted,  as  a  in  hctt. 

17.  Some  letters  combine — 

(a)  To  form  one  sound. 

(b)  To  form  a  combination  of  sounds. 

18.  The  name  of  a  letter  is  the  term  or  appelhv 
tion  by  which  it  is  known. 

19.  The  power  of  a  letter  is  the  elementary  Bound 
which  it  represents. 

20.  When  two  or  more  letters  unite,  to  represent 
a  union  of  elementary  sounds,  they  form  a  combina* 
turn  of  letters. 


ORTHOGRAPHY.  23 

21.  A  final  letter  is  one  that  ends  a  word.    T  is 
fi  ial  in  rat. 

22.  The  union  of  two  vowels  in  one  syllable  is 
culled  &  diphthong;  the  union  of  three  vowels  in  one 
syllable  is  called  a  triphthong. 

23.  Dipthongs  are  divided  into  two  classes,  proper 
aad  improper. 

A  proper  diphthong  is  one  in  which  both  vowels 
a<re  sounded. 

An  improper  diphthong  is  one  in  which  one  of 
the  vowels  is  silent. 

Triphthongs  are  also  divided  into  two  classes, 
proper  and  improper. 

A  proper  triphthong  is  one  is  which  the  three 
vowels  are  sounded. 

An  improper  triphthong  is  one  in  which  one  or 
two  of  the  vowels  are  silent. 

24.  Two  or  more  consonants  are  said  to  unite 
when  their  sounds  coalesce. 

25.  Any  consonant  sound  may  unite  with  a  vowel 
sound. 

26.  A  digraph  is  a  union  of  two  vowels  in  one 
syllable,  in  which  only  one  of  the  vowels  is  sounded. 
A  trigraph  is  a  union  of  three  vowels  in  one  sylla- 
ble, not  all  of  which  are  sounded. 

27.  A  syllable   is   a   sound   or   combination  of 
sounds  uttered  with  a  single  impulse  of  the  voice. 

28.  The  essential  part  of  a  syllable  is  a  vowel. 

29.  A  syllable  may  consist — 
(a)  Of  a  vowel. 


24  THE   NORMAL   QUESTION  BOOK. 

Ex. — J.-cre,  ei-ther. 

(b)  Of  a  vowel  with  one  or  more  consonants 
prefixed. 

Ex. — J3a-sis,  6n-er,  phthi-sis. 

(c)  Of  a  vowel  with  one  or  more  consonants 
Affixed. 

Ex. — In,  elf,  intQr-ests,  earths. 

(d)  Of  a  vowel  with  one  or  more  consonants 
both  prefixed  and  affixed. 

Ex. — N-oo-w,  tr-u-th,  thr-u-sts. 

j 

30.    MODELS  FOB  ANALYZING  SYLLABLES. 

An  is  a  syllable  consisting  of  two  elements : 

A  is  the  essential  element;  it  is  a  vowel.  (Give 
its  sound.) 

JVis  a  consonant,  and  represents  a  sub-vocal; 
it  is  affixed  to  a,  which  it  modifies.  (Give  its 
sound.) 

Break  is  a  syllable  consisting  of  three  parts: 

JEa  is  the  essential  part, — it  is  a  diphthong 
(why?),  improper  (why?);  e  is  silent, — a  only  is 
sounded.  (Give  its  sound.) 

Br  is  a  union  of  two  consonants,  both  repre- 
senting sub-vocals,  b  and  r,  which  are  prefixed  to 
ea.  (Give  their  sounds  separately,  then  together.) 

K  is  a  consonant  representing  an  aspirate, 
and  is  affixed  to  ea.  (Give  its  sound.) 

Analyze  the  following  syllables  and  describe 
each  element : — 

Kite,  dog,  numb,  boat,  friend,  truth,  day, 
wax,  hat,  view,  sound,  aid,  meet,  suit. 


ORTHOGRAPHY.  25 

81.  A  word  is  a  syllable  or  a  combination  of  syl- 
Cables  used  as  the  sign  of  some  idea. 

32.  I.  Words  are  classified  according  to  the  num- 
ber of  syllables  they  contain,  as  follows: 

(1)  A  word  of  one  syllable  is  called  a  mono- 
syllable. 

Ex. — Boy,  pen,  tree. 

(2)  A  word  of  two  syllables  is  called  a  dissyl- 
lable. 

Ex.—Na-tvre,  faith-ful. 

(3)  A  word  of  three  syllables  is  called  a  trisyl- 
lable.  ' 

Ex. — Nat-u-ral,  faith-ful-ness. 

(4)  A  word  of  four  or  more  syllables  is  called 
a  polysyllable. 

E x . — u n-n at-u-ral,  un-faith-ful-ness. 

II.  Words  are  divided  according  to  their 
formation  into  simple,  compound,  primitive  and 
derivative. 

(1)  A  simple  word  is  one  which  is  not  formed 
by  uniting  two  or  more  words ;    as,  hand,  paper, 
father. 

(2)  A  compound  word  is  one  which  is  formed 
by  the  union  of  two  or  more  simple  words;  as, 
hand-machine,  newspaper.     The   words   forming  a 
compound  are  sometimes  connected  by  the  hyphen 
[  -  ] ;  as,  father-in-law 

(3)  A  primitive   word    is   one   which   is  not 
formed  from  any  other  word  in  the  same  language, 
but  is  in  its  first  or  simplest  form;  as,  sin,  wind, 
lady. 


26  THE   NORMAL   QUESTION   BOOK. 

(4)  A  derivative  word  is  one  which  is  formed 
from  a  primitive  word  by  some  change,  or  by  pre- 
fixing or  suffixing  another  syllable  or  word ;  as, 
sinful,  windy. 

33.  Accent  is  a  stress  of  voice  laid  on  a  certain 
syllable  when  a  word  is  uttered. 

/ 

34.  The  syllable  that  receives  the  stress  is  said  to 
be  accented. 

35.  It  may  be  denoted  by  a  mark  called  the  acute 
accent  ['],  placed  above  it  to  the  right;  as  lemr on, 
engrave'. 

36.  A  difference  of  accent  sometimes  serves  to 
distinguish  words   spelled   alike  but   differing  in 
meaning.     Thus,   Au'gust  is  the   eighth   month; 
august' is  grave,  majestic. 

37.  In  some  compounds,  there  is  but  one  accent; 
as  gen'tlemen,  praiseworthy.     In  others,  each  of  the 
words  compounded  retains  its  accent ;  as,  writ'ing- 
mas'ter,  man'y-col'ored. 

38.  When  there  are  more  accents  than  one,  the 
parts   of  the   compound   are   generally  connected 
with  a  short  horizontal  line  [-],  called  the  hyphen. 
When  there  is  but  one  accent  in  the  compound, 
the  hyphen  is  commonly  omitted. 

39.  Every  word  of  more  than  one  syllable  has 
one  of  its  syllables  accented. 

40.  The  accented  syllable  may  be  either  the  first, 
the  last,  or  a  middle  syllable.         Id.,  p.  28,  art-  8. 

41.  Two.     Primary  and  Secondary. 

Ex. — In"defat'igable,  in'rcomprehen'sible. 


ORTHOGRAPHY.  27 

42.  A  word  in  reference  to  its  significant  parts 
must  contain  a  rooty  and  may  contain  a  prefix  or  a 
suffix. 

43.  A  root9  or  radical,  is  either  a  word,  or  that 
part  of  a  word  which  is  modified  by  a  prefix  or  a 
suffix. 

Ex. — .Fair,  un-fair,  un-/air-ness. 

44.  A  prefix  is  that  part  of  a  word  which  is 
placed  before  the  root  to  modify  its  meaning. 

Ex. — Re-turn,  pre-pay,  wn-fit. 
A  suffix  is  that  part  of  a  word  which  is  placed 
after  a  root  to  modify  its  meaning. 

Ex. — Heart-kss,  child-Aood,  good-ness. 

45.  In  analyzing  a  word  according  to  its  signifi- 
cant parts,  point  out  the  root,  then  the  prefix  or 
the  suffix,  and  show  how  it  modifies  the  root. 

46.  Pronunciation  is  the  utterance  of  the  sounds 
of  a  word,  with  proper  articulation  and  accent. 

47.  Spelling  is  the  act  of  expressing,  in  proper 
order,  according  to  established  authority,  the  letters 
or  sounds  of  which  a  word  is  composed. 

48.  There   are    three    kinds   of    spelling;    viz: 
Phonic,  Oral,  and  Written. 

Phonic  spelling  is  the  expression,  in  proper 
order  of  the  sounds  of  which  a  word  is  composed. 

Oral  (orthographic)  spelling  is  the  expression 
by  the  mouth,  in  proper  order,  of  the  letters  of 
which  a  word  is  composed. 


28  THE   NORMAL   QUESTION  BOOK. 

"Written  spelling  is  the  expression,  in  written 
characters,  in  proper  order,  of  the  letters  of  which 
a  word  is  composed. 

49.  I.    GENERAL   RULES   FOR   SPELLING. 

1.  Write  no  word  unless  sure  of  its  orthogra- 
phy and  signification. 

2.  Consult  the  dictionary  in  case  of  doubt. 

3.  Apply  the  rules  for  derivatives. 

II.     SPECIAL   RULES   FOR   SPELLING. 

1.  Words  which  end  with  a  consonant,  pre- 
ceded hy  a  single  vowel,  and  which  are  accented  on 
the  last  syllable,  double  the  final  letter  on  taking 
an  additional  syllable  beginning  with  a  vowel. 

Remark. — JTand  h  are  never  doubled. 

2.  Words  which  end  with  a  consonant,  pre- 
ceded by  a  diphthong,  or  a  diagraph  representing  a 
vowel  sound,  and  words  which  are  not  accented  on 
the  last  syllable,  do  not  double  the  final  letter  on 
taking  an  additional  syllable. 

Exceptions. — Many  words  which  are  not  ac- 
cented on  the  last  syllable,  ending  with  s  or  Z,  often 
double  the  final  consonant,  contrary  to  analogy; 
as,  travel,  travelling. 

3.  Words  which  end  with  e  generally  retain 
it  on  taking  an  additional  syllable  beginning  with 
a  consonant. 

Exceptions. — Judgment,  lodgment. 

Remark. — When  the  e  is  preceded  by  a  vowel, 
it  is  sometimes  retained  and  sometimes  dropped ; 
as,  true,  truly. 

4.  Words  which  end  with  e  generally  omit  it 


ORTHOGRAPHY.  29 

*fti  taking  an  additional  syllable  beginning  with  a 
vowel. 

Exceptions. — Words  ending  with  ce  or  ge  re- 
tain e  before  the  terminations  able  and  ows,  to  pre- 
serve the  soft  sound  of  c  and  </;  as,  peace,  peace- 
able; courage,  courageous,  etc.  Dyeing  retains  the 
/  to  distinguish  it  from  dying. 

5.  Words  which  end  with  ie  drop  the  e  and 
change  the  i  into  y  on  taking  the  syllable  ing. 

6.  Words  which  end  with  y,  preceded  by  a 
consonant,  change  y  into  i  on  taking  an  additional 
syllable. 

Exceptions. — Before  ing,  y  is  retained ;  as,  pity, 
pitying. 

7.  The  diagraph  ei  follows  c  soft ;  ie  is  found  af- 
ter the  other  consonants.     Ei  begins  words ;  ie  is 
found  at  the  end  of  words. 

50.  The  following  method  of  orthographic  pars- 
ing is  by  far  the  best  method  we  have  ever  seen : 

Words  analyzed:     Pin  and  impossibility. 

Pin  is  a  simple,  primitive  monosyllable.  Spelled 
orthographically  [naming  the  letters]  p,  i,  n,  and 
phonically  [enunciating  the  sounds]  p,  i,  n. 

Impossibility  is  a  simple  derivative  polysylla- 
ble, accented  on  the  fourth  and  second  syllables. 
Possible,  the  base  of  the  word,  is  modified  by  the 
prefix  im,  signifying  not,  and  the  suffix  %,  signify- 
ing the  state  or  condition.  The  word  signifies, 
"that  which  can  not  be."  It  is  spelled,  ortho- 
graphically, i,  m,  p,  o,  s,  s,  i,  b,  i,  1,  i,  t,  y,  and  phon- 
ically, i,  m,  p,  o,  s,  s,  i,  b,  i,  1,  i,  t,  i. 

I  is  a  vowel,  the  base  of  the  first  syllable,  rep- 


80         THE  NORMAL  QUESTION  BOOK. 

resenting  its  own  short  sound  I,  [enunciate,]  which 
is  a  short,  simple  vocal. 

M  is  a  consonant,  and  the  consequent  of  the 
hase  of  the  first  syllable,  representing  its  own  sound, 
m;  [enunciate,]  which  is  a  sub- vocal,  obstructed 
at  the  lips  by  a  partial  contact  of  the  organs,  pro. 
dueing  a  labial,  a  continuant,  and  a  nasal. 

P  is  a  consonant  and  the  antecedent  of  the  base 
of  the  second  syllable,  representing  its  own  sound, 
p;  [enunciate]  which  is  an  aspirate,  obstructed  at 
the  lips  by  a  perfect  contact  of  the  organs,  pro- 
ducing a  labial  and  an  abrupt. 

0,  the  base  of  the  second  syllable,  is  a  vowel, 
representing  it  own   short  sound  6;  [enunciate,] 
which  is  a  short,  simple  vocal. 

S  is  a  consonant,  and  the  consequent  of  the 
base  of  the  second  syllable,  representing  its  own 
proper  sound,  s;  [enunciate,]  which  is  an  aspirate, 
obstructed  at  the  gums  by  a  partial  contact  of  the 
organs,  producing  a  dental  and  a  continuant. 

1,  the  base  of  the  third  syllable,  is  a  vowel, 
repesenting  its  own  short  sound,  i;   [enunciate,] 
which  is  a  short,  simple  vocal. 

B  is  a  consonant,  and  the  antecedent  of  the 
base  of  the  fourth  syllable,  representing  its  own 
proper  sound,  b;  [enunciate,]  which  is  a  sub- vocal, 
obstructed  at  the  lips  by  a  perfect  contact  of  the 
organs,  producing  a  labial  and  an  abrupt. 

I,  the  base  of  the  fourth  syllable,  is  a  vowel, 
representing  its  own  short  sound,  i;  [enunciate,] 
which  is  a  short,  simple  vocal. 

L  is  a  consonant,  and  the  consequent  of  the 


ORTHOGRAPHY.  31 

jf  the  fourth  syllable,  representing  its  own 
proper  sound,  1;  [enunciate,]  which  is  a  sub-vocal, 
obstructed  at  the  hard  palate  by  a  partial  contact 
of  the  organs,  producing  a  palatal,  a  continuant, 
and  a  liquid. 

I,  the  base  of  the  fifth  syllable,  is  a  vowel,  rep- 
resenting its  own  short  sound,  i ;  [enunciate,]  which 
is  a  short,  simple  vocal,  modified  at  the  teeth. 

T  is  a  consonant,  and  the  antecedent  of  the 
base  of  the  sixth  syllable,  representing  its  own 
proper  sound,  t ;  [enunciate,]  which  is  an  aspirate, 
obstructed  at  the  teeth  or  gums  by  a  perfect  con- 
tact of  the  organs,  producing  a  dental  and  an  ab- 
rupt. 

Y,  the  base  of  the  sixth  syllable,  is  a  vowel, 
representing  the  short  sound  of  i,  i;  [enunciate,] 
which  is  a  short,  simple  vocal,  modified  at  the  teeth. 


32  THB  NORMA^  QUESTION  BOOK. 


QUESTIONS  ON  READING. 


1.  Define  Eeading. 

2.  What    mental    qualifications  must  a  good 
reader  possess  and  employ? 

3.  What  are  the  physical  requisites  for  good 
reading? 

4.  What,  then,  does  good  reading  demand  ? 

5.  What  objects  are  to  be  aimed  at  in  the  study 
and  teaching  of  reading  ? 

6.  What  is  articulation  ? 

7.  How  can  a  good  articulation  be  acquired? 

8.  What  is  phonetic  analysis  ? 

9.  What  is  an  elementary  sound? 

10.  Into  what  classes  are  the  elementary  sounds 
of  the  English  language  divided? 

11.  Define  vocals. 

12.  Give  some  directions  for  articulating  vocal 
sounds. 

13.  Give  a  chart  of  vocal  sounds. 

14.  Define  subvocals. 

15.  Give    directions    for    articulating    subvocal 
sounds. 

16.  Give  a  chart  of  subvocal  sounds. 

17.  Define  aspirates. 

18.  Give  directions  for  articulating  aspirates. 


READING.  33 

19.  Give  a  chart  of  aspirate  sounds. 

20.  Give  a  list  of  the  most  common  faults  in  ar- 
ticulation. 

21.  Give  a  good  plan  for  explaining  elementary 
sounds  to  beginners. 

22.  How  are  the  divisions  of  syllables  marked? 

23.  Give  a  plan  for  drilling  pupils  in  articulation? 

24.  What  is  emphasis? 

25.  What  is  the  object  of  emphasis  ? 

26.  How  is  this  accomplished  ? 

27.  Name  and  define  the  kinds  of  emphasis? 

28.  How  are  emphatic  words  printed  ? 
29V  What  is  accent  ? 

30.  How  is  the  accented  syllable  designated? 

31,  Name  and  define  the  kinds  of  accent. 
32    What  are  inflections? 

33.  Define  each. 

34.  Give  rules  for  the  use  of  inflections. 

35.  What  is  a  series? 

36.  What  is  a  commencing  series,  and  what  a  con- 
cluding series  ? 

37.  What  is  a  circumflex  ? 

38.  Give  an  outline  of  the  subject  of  vocal  cul- 
ture. 

39.  What  is  transition  ? 

40.  What  is  monotone  ? 

41.  Define  monotony. 

42.  What  is  modulation  ? 

43.  How  is  the  voice  modulated? 

44.  How  many  degrees  of  variation  in  pitch  ? 

45.  What  can  you  say  of  quantity  ? 


84  THE  NORMAL   QUESTION  BOOK. 

46.  What  is  the  difference  between  quantity  and 
pitch  ? 

47.  What  is  quality  ? 

48.  What  is  force? 

49.  What  is  the  difference  between  force  *cd 
emphasis  ? 

50.  What  is  stress? 

51.  What  is  cadence? 

52.  What  is  climax? 

53.  Define  grouping. 

54.  What  is  personation? 

55.  What  are  rhetorical  pauses? 

56.  Name  the  rhetorical  points. 

57,.  Name  and  define  the  other  classes  of  pointft, 

58.  Give  rules  for  the  use  of  capitals. 

59.  Give  a  principle  of  reading  that  will 
of  general  application. 


READING. 


ANSWERS  TO  QUESTIONS  ON  READING. 

1.  Reading  is  the  interpretation  and  expression 
of  the  thoughts,  sentiments,  and  feelings  of  an  au- 
thor. Fertich's  Instructive  Elocution,  p.  17. 

2.  A  good  reader  or  speaker  must  possess  and 
employ — 

(1)  A  clear  conception. 

(2)  A  vivid  imagination. 

(3)  Real  sympathy. 

(4)  Good  imitation 

(5)  Vocal  power. 

(6)  Artistic  skill. 

(7)  Good  judgment. 

3.  The  requisites  of  good  reading  are— 

(1)  Distinct  articulation. 

(2)  Full  and  free  respiration. 

(3)  Perfect  control  of  a  clear,  full,  round,  mu- 
sical tone  of  voice. 

(4)  Graceful  and  expressive  action. 

(5)  Cultivated  taste  and  judgment. 

4.  Good  reading  demands,  in  a  special  manner, 
attention  to  the  following  particulars,  viz: 

ARTICULATION,    ACCENT,    EMPHASIS,    INFLECTION, 
MODULATION,  AND  PAUSES. 


36         THE  NORMAL  QUESTION  BOOK. 

5.  The  objects  to  be  aimed  at  in  the  study  of 
reading,  and  of  course  in  teaching  it,  are — 

(1)  The  acquisition  of  general  knowledge. 

(2)  The  acquisition  of  a  love  for  reading. 

(3)  The  improvement  of  the  memory,  judgment 
and  taste. 

(4)  Improvement  of  the  social  faculties. 

(5)  Improvement  of  the  health. 

(6)  A  graceful  carriage  and  address. 

(7)  A  preparation  for  public  life. 

(8)  The  prevention  and  correction  of  impro- 
prieties. 

6.  Articulation  is  the  utterance  of  the  element- 
ary sounds  of  a  language,  and  of  their  combinations 
in  words. 

7.  To  acquire  a  good  articulation,  attention  must 
be  paid  to  exercises  upon  elementary  sounds  and 
their  combinations,  and  to  the  phonetic  analysis  of 
syllables  and  words. 

8.  Phonetic  analysis  is  the  separation  of  sylla- 
bles and  words  into  the  elementary  sounds  of  which 
they  are  composed. 

9.  An  elementary  sound  is  a  simple,  distinct 
sound  made  by  the  organs  of  speech. 

10.  The  elementary  sounds  of  the  English  lan- 
guage are  divided  into  vocals,  subvocals,  and  aspi- 
rates. 

11.  Vocals  consist  of  pure  tone.    A  diphthong  is 
a  union  of  two  vocals,  commencing  with  one  and 
ending  with  the  other.    Vocals  are  the  prominent 
elements  of  all  words. 


READING. 


37 


12.  {1)  Let  the  mouth  be  open,  and  the  teeth, 
tongue  and  palate  in  their  proper  position. 

(2)  Pronounce  one  of  the  words  in  the  chart  in 
a  forcible,  affirmative  tone,  several  times  in  succes- 
sion. 

(3)  Drop  the  subvocal  or  aspirate  sounds  which 
precede  or  follow  the  vocal,  and  repeat  the  vocals 
olone. 

(4)  Ha^e  the  class,  at  first,  repeat  the  words 
and  sounds  in  concert. 

(5)  Have  each  pupil  to  articulate  them  sepa- 
rately 

13.  CHART  OF  VOCAL  SOUNDS. 

LONG  SOUNDS. 

A,  a,  as  in  lie,  late,  mate,  baker,  labor,  favor. 

A,  a,  as  in  air,  fair,  hare,  mare,  share. 

A,  a,  as  in  are,  far,  ark,  dahlia,  harp,  harsh. 

A,  a,  as  in  after,  branch,  pass,  plaster. 

A,  a,  as  in  all,  fall,  haul,  call,  walk. 

E,  e,  as  in  eve,  we,  deep,  sere,  hear,  receive. 

E,  e,  as  in  err,  erst,  ermine,  prefer. 

I,  I,  as  in  Ire,  time,  tide,  combine,  file,  write. 

0,  as  in  over,  no,  told,  vote,  control,  mode. 
Co,  67),  as  in  do"om,  cool,  blSom,  m5on,  groom. 
U,  u,  as  in  use,  unit,  music,  refuse,  involute. 
U,  u,  as  in  urn,  urge,  burn,  fur. 

U,  u,  when  preceded  by  r,  as  in  rule,  frugal,  true. 

SHORT  SOUNDS. 

A,  a,  as  in  cat,  at,  man,  and,  natural. 
E,  6,  as  in  elk,  rent,  dense,  w6n,  fled. 

1,  I,  as  in  Ink,  wit,  din,  whim,  trivial. 
O,  6,  as  in  5n,  d6t,  r6b,  m6ral,  resolve. 
U,  u,  as  in  us,  ugly,  bat,  mug,  htisky. 

Oo,  do,  as  in  good,  hook,  cooper,  foot,  book. 


OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY 

- 
PAL 


38  THE  NORMAL  QUESTION  BOOK. 

DIPHTHONGS. 

Oi,  oi,  as  in  oil,  coin,  choice,  quoit. 

Oil,  ou,  as  in  bound,  proud,  out,  rouse,  cow. 

14.  A  voiced  sound  modified  and  obstructed  by 
t&e  articulatory  organs. 

15.  (1)  Pronounce  distinctly  and  forcibly,  several 
times  in  succession,  words  in  which  they  occur  as 
final  elements. 

(2)  Drop  the  other  sounds,  and  repeat  the  sub- 
vocals  alone. 

(3)  Repeat  the  words  and  elements,  at  first 
m  concert;  then  separately. 

16.  CHART  OF  SUBVOCAL  SOUNDS. 

SUBVOCALS  WITH    CORRELATIVES. 

B,  b,  as  in  6bb,  rub,  babe,  tube,  r5be. 

D,  d,  as  in  add,  bed,  rftd,  bud. 

G,  g,  as  in  nag,  rig,  fog,  beg,  rug. 

J,  j,  as  in  judge,  nudge,  I6ge,  grtidge. 

V,  v,  as  in  rave,  give,  rove,  glftve. 

Th,  th,  as  in  beneath,  breathe,  with,  thine. 

Z,  z,  as  in  raze,  size,  lose,  rose,  use. 

Zh,  zh,  as  in  measure,  azure,  leisure. 

SUBVOCALS  WITH  NO  CORRELATIVES. 

N,  n,  as  in  man,  son,  fin,  run. 

M,  m,  as  in  name,  home,  grim,  flume. 

Ng,  ng,  as  in  sang,  fling  wr6ng,  rung. 

L,  1,  as  in  fall,  mill,  roll,  gull. 

R,  r,  as  in  far,  sir,  s5ar,  slur. 

E,  r,  as  in  rear,  drtim,  r5am,  rill. 

W,  w,  as  in  wear,  woof,  wile,  wish,  will. 
Y,  y,  as  in  year,  yes,  you,  yeoman. 

17.  Aspirates  consist  of  breath  only,  modified  by 
the  vocal  organs. 


READING.  3i> 

18.  (1)  Pronounce,  several  times  in  succession, 
words  in  which  aspirate  sounds  occur  as  initial  or 
final  elements. 

(2)  Drop  the  other  sounds,  and  repeat  the  as- 
pirates alone. 

(3)  Repeat  the  words  and  elements,  at  first,  ia 
concert,  then  separately. 

19.  CHART  OF  ASPIRATE  SOUNDS. 
F,  f,  as  in  life,  quaff,  skiff,  sc6ff,  rftff. 

H,  h,  as  in  hay,  hive,  hope,  humid. 

K,  k,  as  in  rake,  b66k,  rick,  mtick,  rock. 

P,  p,  as  in  rap,  lip,  h6p,  up,  gallop. 

S,  s,  as  in  mass,  kiss,  I6ss,  fuss. 

T,  t,  as  in  at,  flit,  mote,  lute,  sttbmlt. 

Sh,  sh,  as  in  rash,  wish,  b6sh,  mfish.  shore. 

Ch,  ch,  as  in  match,  rich,  roach,  milch. 

Th,  th,  as  in  thank,  16th,  throne,  ruth,  wr6th. 

Wh,  wh,  as  in  whale,  what,  whip,  why,  whimper. 

20.  (1)  Suppression  of  vocal  sounds  in  unaccented 
syllables. 

(2)  Suppression  of  subvocal  and  aspirate  sounds. 

(3)  Incorrect  articulation  of  vocal  sounds. 

(4)  Omission  and  addition  of  syllables. 

(5)  Blending  the  end  of  one  word  with  the  be- 
ginning of  the  next. 

21.  Take,  for  example,  the  word  map,  in  which 
there  are  as  many  sounds  as  there  are  letters.x  Print 
it  on  the  board  : 

MAP. — m-m-m  a-a-a  p-p-p  map. '  j 
After  the  separate  sounds  of  this  word  are  per- 
fectly understood,  select  one  with  a  new  element  in 
it,  and  exercise  pupils  on  that ;  first  calling  on  them 
to  say  whether  it  has  as  many  sounds  as  it  has  let- 
ters. 


40  THE   NORMAL   QUESTION  BOOK. 

MAIS". — m-m-m  a-a-a  n-n-n  man. 

Proceed  now  to  illustrate  the  fact  that,  owing 
to  the  poverty  of  our  alphabet  and  the  capricious 
irregularities  in  our  modes  of  forming  words  by 
letters,  the  same  letter,  a,  is  used  for  a  variety  of 
sounds. 

This  may  be  shown  in  make,  car,  fall,  etc.  Show 
that  one  device  for  helping  us  out  has  been  to  at- 
tach a  silent  vowel  letter  (as  in  wafce=m~a-k)  to 
indicate  the  long  sound  of  a  in  a  large  class  of 
words. 

MAKE. — m-m-m  a-a-a-  k-k-k  make. 

In  the  word  car  we  have  the  sounds  of  k,  a  iu 
father  and  smooth  or  untrilled  r. 

CAR. — k-k-k  a-a-a  r-r-r  car. 

Here  it  may  be  illustrated  that  the  presence  of 
r  should  give  a  slight,  but  not  a  too  formal,  differ- 
ence to  our  enunciation  of  such  words  as  alms  and 
arms,  balm  and  farm. 

In  the  word  thaw  there  are  only  two  elementary 
sounds,  namely,  aspirate  th  and  the  sound  of  a  in 
fall.  Call  upon  pupils  to  designate  the  elementary 
sounds  in  the  following  words :  Trough  (trof ), 
enough,  physic,  child,  shine,  thin,  thine,  sleigh,  calf, 
autumn,  awe,  aught,  height,  freight,  prove,  prone,  laugh> 
sphere. 

22.  By  pauses  and  repetitions. 

23.  First.  Pronounce  the  vowel  e.  extending  the 
lips  as  much  as  possible  sidewise.  ana  showing  the 
tips  of  the  teeth. 

Second.  Pronounce  ah,  dropping  the  jaw  and 
opening  the  mouth  to  its  widest  extent. 


READING.  41 

Third.  Pronounce  oo  (as  in  cool)  contracting 
the  lips. 

Then,  the  teacher  having  drawn  upon  the 
blackboard  a  triangle  with  the  three  sounds  indi- 
cated at  the  angles,  let  him  pass  the  "  pointer," 
around  in  a  circle,  touching  at  the  angles,  and  re- 
quire the  pupils  to  utter  the  vowels,  as  he  indicates 
them,  in  rapid  succession,  continuously,  that  is,  with- 
out pausing  between  them.  Having  gone  around 
three  or  four  times  in  one  direction,  make  a  signal 
for  the  pupils  to  stop ;  then  taking  a  fresh  breath^ 
reverse  the  exercise. 

E 


Proceed  in  like  manner,  taking  each  of  the 
other  angles  as  a  starting  point.  We  shall  thus 
have  repetitions  of  each  of  the  following :( E-ah-oo; 
e-oo-ah ;  ah-e-oo ;  ah-oo-e ;  oo-ah-e ;  oo-e-ah. 

After  the  above  has  been  practiced  for  a  min- 
ute or  two,  exercises  like  the  following  may  be 
taken  up  immediately.  (The  teacher  pronounces 
one  word  at  a  time,  with  the  utmost  precision,  and 
requires  the  pupils  to  repeat  with  an  exaggerated 
movement  of  the  lips  and  jaws.^  Next,  phrases,  an4 


42  THE   NORMAL   QUESTION   BOOK. 

finally  complete  sentences,  are  uttered,  great  care 
being  taken  to  give  elastic  spring  and  play  to  the 
muscles  of  articulation.  The  one  injunction  which 
needs  to  be  enforced  upon  the  mumbler  is,  OPEN  THE 

MOUTH  AND  MOVE  THE  LIPS. 

ARTICULATION  OF   SINGLE   WORDS. 

I .  .  know  .  .  of  .  .  no  .  .  way  .  .  of  .  .  judging 
.  .  of  .  .  the  .  .  future  .  .  but  .  .  by  .  .  the  .  .  past. 

ARTICULATION   OF   PHRASES. 

In  every  period  of  life  .  .  the  acquisition  of 
knowledge  .  .  is  one  of  the  most  pleasing  employ* 
ments  .  .  of  the  human  mind. 

ARTICULATION   OF   SENTENCES. 

The  greater  the  difficulty,  the  more  glory  there 
is  in  surmounting  it ;  skillful  pilots  gain  their  repu- 
tation from  storms  and  tempests. 

24.  Emphasis  is  a  special  stress  of  voice  upon  one 
or  more  words  of  a  sentence,  to  give  them  the 
prominence  and  importance  the  author  intends. 

25.  The  object  of  emphasis  is  to  attract  particu- 
lar attention  to  the  word  or  phrase  upon  which  it 
5s  placed,  thus  indicating  that  the  idea  intended  to 
be  conveyed  depends  very  much  upon  that  word  or 
phrase. 

26.  This  is  sometimes  accomplished  by  an  unu^ 
sual  lowering  of  the  voice,  even  to  a  whisper;  but 
most  frequently  by  an  increased  stress  laid  upon 
the  word  or  phrase  to  be  emphasized. 


READING.  4B 

27.  Emphasis  is  either  absolute  or  relative. 
When  the  emphasis  is  independent  of  any  con- 
trast or  comparison  with  other  words  or  ideas,  it 
is  called  absolute  emphasis. 

Where  there  is  antithesis,  either  expressed  of 
implied,  the  emphasis  is  called  relative. 

28.  Emphatic  words  are  often  printed  in  Italics 
When,  however,  different  degrees  of  emphasis  are 
to  be  denoted,  the  higher  degrees  are  designated 
by  the  use  of  capitals,  LARGER  or  SMALLER,  ac- 
cording to  the  degree  of  intensity. 

•* 

29.  Accent  is  that  stress  of  voice  by  which  one 
syllable  of  a  word  is  made  more  prominent  than 
others.  Id.,  p.  £1. 

30.  The  accented  syllable  is  designated  thus:  ('); 
as,  com-mand'-ment. 

31.  Primary  and  secondary.     The  more  forcible 
stress  of  voice,  is  called  the  primary  accent;  and  the 
less  forcible,  the  secondary  accent. 

32.  Inflections  are  slides  of  the  voice  upward  or 
downward.     Of  these  there  are  two :  the  rising  in- 
flection and  falling  inflection. 

83.  The  RISING  INFLECTION  is  that  in  which  the 
coice  slides  upward,  and  is  marked  thus  (') ;  as, 
Did  you  walk'?  (Did  you  walk?) 

The  FALLING  INFLECTION  is  that  in  which  the 
voice  slides  downward,  and  is  marked  thus  Q ;  as, 
I  did  not  walk\  (I  did  not  walk.) 

34.  (1)  Emphatic  words,  and  words  denoting  a 


44  THE  NORMAL   QUESTION  BOOK. 

completion  of  the  sense,  generally  require  the  fall 
ing  inflection. 

(2)  Words  concluding  negations  and  direct  ques- 
tions, or  words  used  by  way  of  direct  address,  re- 
quire the  rising  inflection  ;  but,  if  repeated  emphat- 
ically, the  falling  inflection  is  proper. 

(3)  Words  concluding  indirect  questions,  re- 
quire the  falling  inflection;  but,  if  repeated  em- 
phatically,  the  rising  inflection  is  proper. 

(4)  Each  member  of  a  commencing  series  gen- 
erally requires  the  falling  inflection,  except  the  last, 
which  should  have  the  rising  inflection. 

(5)  Each  member  of  a  concluding  series  gen- 
erally requires  the  falling  inflection,  except  the  last 
but  one,  which  should  have  the  rising  inflection. 

35.  A  series  is  a  succession  of  particulars  in  a 
discourse. 

36.  A  series  in  the  beginning  or  middle  of  a  sen- 
tence is  called  a  commencing  series.     A  series  which 
concludes  a  sentence  is  called  a  concluding  series. 

37.  The  circumflex  is  a  union  of  the  two  inflec- 
tions on  the  same  word,  beginning  either  with  the 
falling  and  ending  with  the  rising,  or  with  the  rising 
and  ending  with  the  falling. 


READING. 


45 


38. 


Quality 


ELEMENTS   OF   EXPRESSION. 

Pure  Tone. 

f  Effusive. 
Orotund  <  Expulsive. 

(Explosive. 
Aspirated. 
Guttural. 
Nasal. 
Oral. 


Low. 
Very  low. 
Middle. 
High. 
Very  high. 
Transitions 


Force. 


Stress. 


Subdued. 

Moderate. 

Energetic. 

,ImPassioned{  Suppressed. 


[Long. 

Quantity^  Medium. 
(Short. 


Radical. 

Median. 

Vanishing. 

Compound. 

Tremor. 


(Slow. 
Rapid 


39.  Transition  is  change  in  the  manner  of  ex- 
pression. 

40.  The  monotone  is  an  unvaried  tone  through- 
out a  sentence  or  discourse. 

41.  Monotony  is  a  frequent  occurrence  of  the 
same  tone  or  manner,  without   reference  to  the 
sense. 

42.  Modulation  implies  those  variations  of  the 
voice,  heard  in  reading  or  speaking,  which  are 
prompted  hy  the  feelings  and  emotions  that   the 
subject  inspires. 

43.  The   voice  is   modulated  in   three  different 
ways ;  that  is,  from  high  to  low  tones,  and  the  re- 
verse. 


£6  THE  NORMAL   QUESTION   BOOK. 

Secondly,  it  is  varied  in  quantity,  or  in  loudness 
ar  volume  of  sound. 

Thirdly,  it  is  varied  in  quality,  or  in  the  kind 
of  sound  expressed. 

44.  Although  the  voice  is  capable  of  as  many 
variations  in  speaking  as  are  marked  on  the  musi- 
cal scale  (8),  yet  for  all  the  purposes  of  ordinary 
reading,  it  will  be  sufficiently  exact  if  we  make  but 
three  degrees  of  variation,  viz.,  the  low,  the  middle^ 
and  the  high. 

45.  QUANTITY  is  two-fold  ;  consisting  in  FULLNESS 
or  VOLUME  of  sound,  as  soft  or  loud;  and  in  TIME, 
as  slow  or  quick.     The   former  has   reference  to 
STRESS,  the  latter  to  MOVEMENT. 

46.  Quantity  has  reference  to  loudness  or  volume 
of  sound,  and  pitch  to  the  elevation  or  depression  of 
a  tone. 

47.  QUALITY  has  reference  to  the  kind  of  sound 
uttered. 

48.  FORCE  is  the  degree  of  energy  with  which 
sounds  are  uttered. 

49.  Emphasis  differs  from  force,  in  the  fact  that 
the  former  is  relative,  while  the  latter  is  absolute. 

50.  The  manner  in  which  force  is  applied,  h$ 
Beading  and  speaking,  is  termed  stress. 

51.  CADENCE  is  the  dropping  of  the  voice  at  the 
close  of  the  se.iptf3tn.c3,  wjhicjti  .ipd.ic.a.te.s  .t.h.a.t  the  sense 
is  complete. 


BEADING.  47 

52.  CLIMAX  is  an  utterance  gradually  iucreasing 
in  intensity,  and  changing  in  pitch  and  movement. 

53.  GROUPING  is  that  nice  modulation  and  adapta- 
tion of  the  voice  to  the  sentiment  expressed  which 
renders  the   utterance  not  only  more  impressive, 
but  more  pleasing  to  the  ear. 

54.  Personation  is  the  representation  of  the  tones 
and  manner  of  other  persons. 

55.  In  all  discourse,  printed  or  written,  certain 
characters  are  used  to  show  something  about  ita 
meaning  which   can  not  so   conveniently  be   ex- 
pressed by  means  of  words.     These  characters  are 
called  rhetorical  points. 

56.  The  first  class  of  rhetorical  points  includes, 

(1)  The  period  (.) ; 

(2)  The  colon  (:) ; 

(3)  The  semicolon  (;)  ; 

(4)  The  comma  (,). 

The  second  class  of  rhetorical  points  includes, 

(1)  The  exclamation  point  (!); 

(2)  The  interrogation  point  (?); 

(3)  The  dash  (— )  ; 

(4)  Quotation  marks  ( "  "  and  <  ' ) ; 

(5)  Marks  of  parenthesis  ( ) ; 

(6)  Brackets  []. 

57.  Etymological    points   are   used    to   indicate 
something  in  regard  to  the  formation,  use,  or  omis- 
sion of  words  or  parts  of  words. 

They  are, 


48  THE   NORMAL   QUESTION   BOOK. 

(1)  The  apostrophe  ('),  used  to  show  the  omis- 
sion of  a  letter  or  letters  ;  a's,  John's. 

(2)  The  caret  (A),  to  show  some  omission  in  g 
manuscript;  as 

come 
"  The  king  is  to  marshal  us." 

A 

(3)  The  diaeresis,  to  mark  the  separation  of 
contiguous  vowels;  as,  preengage. 

(4)  Marks  of  quantity,  to  show  that  the  vowel 
k  long  or  short,  as  major. 

(5)  Marks  of  accent,  to   mark  either  the  ac- 
centuation of  a  syllable,  or  the  intonation  of  the 
voice ;  the  grave  (r),  the  acute  ('),  and  the  circum- 
flex (A)  ;  as,  bitu'men,  insist*,  gold. 

(6)  The  hyphen,  used,  1.  To  separate  syllables ; 
as  al-ge-bra;  2.  To  unite  the  parts  of  a  compound 
word. 

(7)  The  period,  to  show  the  abbreviation  of  a 
word ;  as,  lat.  for  latitude. 

Points  for  reference  are  used  to  refer  the  reader 
to  some  other  place  in  the  page  or  the  book.  They 
are  the  following,  which  are  generally  used  in  the 
order  given,  and  may  be  doubled  if  necessary: 

The  asterisk  (*) ; 

The  obelisk  or  dagger  (f) ; 

The  double  obelisk  (J) ; 

The  section  (§) ; 

Parallels  (||),  and 

The  paragraph  (^[). 
58.  Capital  letters  are  used  : 

(1)  To  begin  the  first  word  of  a  sentence. 

(2)  To  begin  all  proper  names. 


READING.  49 

(3)  To  begin  all  titles  of  honor. 

(4)  To  begin  the  first  word  of  every  line  of 
poetry. 

(5)  To  begin  the  names  of  objects  personified. 

(6)  In  writing  the  pronoun  I,  and   interjec- 
tion O. 

(7)  To  begin  appellations  of  the  Deity. 

(8)  To  begin  the  names  of  the  days  of  the 
week,  and  of  the  months. 

(9)  To  begin  direct  quotations. 

£LO)  To  begin  words  derived  from  proper  names. 

(11)  To  begin  the  chief  words  in  the  titles  of 
books,  headings  of  divisions  of  books,  chapters,  dis- 
courses, etc. 

(12)  To  begin  words  of  special  importance. 

59.  "  Be  sure  you  understand  what  you  read,  and 
endeavor  to  express  the  sentiments  of  the  author 
as  you  would  express  the  same  if  they  were  your 
own.  end  you  were  talking." 


50  THE  NORMAL   QUESTION  BOOK. 


QUESTIONS  ON  ARITHMETIC 


1.  Define  Arithmetic  as  a  science  and  as  an  art. 

2.  Upon  what  is  arithmetic  founded,  and  now 
&re  its  operations  carried  on  ? 

3.  What  is  arithmetical  language?    How  many 
kinds  ? 

4.  In  how  many  ways  may  numhers  be  written  Y 

5.  In  the  Arabic  system  of  notation,  numbers 
are  expressed  according  to  what  principle  ? 

6.  Why  is  the  Arabic  system  of  notation  also 
called  the  decimal  system? 

7.  What  is  the  scale  of  a  system  of  notation? 
What  is  the  radix  of  the  scale  ? 

8.  Upon  what  is  the  Arabic  system  of  notation 
based  ? 

9.  How  are  numbers  represented  in  the  Roman 
notation  ? 

10.  What  is  the  effect  of  placing  a  bar  over  a 
letter? 

11.  What  is  the  fundamental  synthetic  proces 
of  arithmetic? 

12.  Give  the  principles  of  addition. 

13.  How  many  and  what  are  the  cases  in  addi- 
tion? 

14.  Why  do  we  write  the  numbers,  as  suggeeced 


ARITHMETIC.  51 

by  the  arithmetics,  and  why  do  we  begin  at  the 
right  hand  to  add  ? 

15.  What  is  the  fundamental  analytical  process 
of  arithmetic? 

16.  Give  the  principles  of  subtraction. 

17.  Name  and  define  the  cases  in  subtraction. 

18.  In  how  many  ways  may  we  obtain  the  ele- 
mentary differences  in  subtraction  ? 

19.  Name  the  principles  of  multiplication. 

20.  Why   are  the   multiplicand   and   multiplier 
taken  together  called  factors? 

21.  What  is  division  ? 

22.  What  are  the  terms  of  division  ? 

23.  Upon  what  does  the  quotient  depend? 

24.  Show  how  the  value  of  the  quotient  depends 
on  the  relation  of  dividend  and  divisor. 

25.  What  principles  of  division  are  deduced  from 
these  relations? 

26.  What  two  theories  regarding  the  quotient,  as 
to  quality  of  abstractness  or  concreteness? 

27.  How  are  numbers  classified? 

28.  Define  these  classes  of  numbers. 

29.  What  are  the  factors  of  a  number? 

30.  What  is  a  prime  factor? 

31.  What  is  factoring? 

32.  What  is  a  divisor  or  measure  of  a  number? 

33.  What  is  a  multiple  of  a  number? 

34.  What  is  a  common  divisor  and  a  common 
multiple? 

35.  Define   greatest  common  divisor  and  least 
common  multiple. 

36.  What  is  a  fraction? 


52  THE  NOEMAL   QUESTION  BOOK. 

37.  How  does  the  unit  of  a  fraction  differ  from  a 
fractional  unit? 

88.  What  is  a  common  fraction  ? 

39.  How  are  fractions  divided  ? 

40.  Define  proper  and  improper,  and  simple,  com- 
pound and  complex  fractions. 

41.  Name  and  define  the  terms  of  a  fraction. 

42.  Is  a  fraction  a  number  ? 

43.  Is  a  fraction  a  denominate  number? 

44.  What  is  a  mixed  number? 

45.  What  is  the  reciprocal  of  a  number  ? 

46.  Give  an  outline  of  the  cases  of  fractions,, 

47.  What  two  methods  are  there  of  developing 
fractions  ? 

48.  What  is  a  continued  fraction? 

49.  What  is  a  decimal  fraction? 

50.  In  what  two  ways  may  a  decimal  fraction  be 
expressed  ? 

51.  What  is  the  first  thing  to  be  considered  in 
the  treatment  of  decimals  ? 

52.  Give  rules  for  reading  and  writing  decimals. 

53.  What  will  the  denominator  of  a  decimal  al- 
ways be  ? 

54.  Upon  what  does  the  value  of  a  decimal  figure 
depend  ? 

55.  How  do  decimals  increase  and  decrease? 

56.  What  is  a  pure  decimal? 

57.  What  is  a  mixed  decimal? 

58.  What  is  a  complex  decimal  ? 

59.  From  what  are  the  names  of  decimal  orders 
derived? 

60.  What  is  a  circulating  decimal? 

61.  What  is  a  denominate  number? 


ARITHMETIC.  53 

62.  What  is  a  simple  denominate  number? 

63.  What  is  a  compound  denominate  number? 

64.  What  is  a  standard  unit? 

65.  Name  the  quantities   of  magnitude   whicb 
give  rise  to  denominate  numbers. 

66.  What  is  the  standard  unit  of  value? 

67.  What  is  the  standard  unit  of  weight? 

68.  What  is  the  standard  unit  of  length? 

69.  What  is  the  standard  unit  of  surface? 

70.  What  is  the  standard  unit  of  volume? 

71.  What  is  the  standard  unit  of  capacity? 

72.  What  is  the  standard  unit  of  angles? 

73.  What  is  the  standard  unit  of  time? 

74.  Define  the  metric  system  of  measurement. 

75.  What  is  percentage  ? 

76.  What  is  the  difference  between  rate  and  rate 
per  cent.  ? 

77.  Name  and   define  the  elements  involved  in 
percentage. 

78.  How  is  per  cent,  expressed  ? 

79.  Give  general  rules  for  computations  in  per- 
centage. 

80.  Give  the  applications  of  percentage. 

81.  Define  profit  and  loss. 

82.  Define  commission ;  brokerage. 

83.  Define  agent,  factor,  broker,  consignee,  and 
consignor. 

84.  Define  duties. 

85.  What  is  the  difference  between  specific  duties 
and  ad  valorem  duties  ? 

86.  What  is  a  tariff? 

87.  What  is  insurance? 

88.  Name  and  define  the  kinds  of  insurance. 


54  THE  NORMAL  QUESTION  BOOK. 

89.  Define  underwriter,  policy  and  premium. 

90.  Define  a  tax. 

91.  What  is  a  bond  ?   What  is  a  coupon  ?   Name 
the  three  principal  classes  of  United  States  bonds. 

92.  Define  interest. 

93.  What  is  the  difference  between  simple  and 
compound  interest? 

94.  What  is  a  note? 

95.  Name  and  define  the  kinds  of  notes. 

96.  What  is  a  draft? 

97.  Define  discount  and  present  worth. 

98.  What  is  the  difference  between  true  discount 
and  bank  discount? 

99.  What  is  ratio? 

100.  What  are  the  terms  of  the  ratio? 

101.  In  how  many  and  in  what  ways  may  the 
ratio  of  two  numbers  be  expressed  ? 

102.  What  is  the  difference  between  a  simple  ra- 
tio and  a  compound  ratio? 

103.  What  is  a  proportion? 

104.  How  is  a  proportion  formed? 

105.  What  is  a  continued  proportion? 

106.  How   many  antecedents  in   a  proportion? 
How  many  consequents? 

107.  How    are    ratio     and     proportion    distin- 
guished ? 

108.  What  is  a  simple  proportion  ? 

109.  What  is  a  direct  proportion  ? 

110.  What  is  an  inverse  proportion? 

111.  What  is  a  compound  proportion? 

112.  Define  partnership. 

113.  What  is  the  difference  between  simple  and 
compound  partnership  ? 


ARITHMETIC.  55 

114.  What  is  analysis? 

115.  Define  exchange. 

116.  What  is  a  bill  of  exchange? 

117.  How  many  parties  to  a  transaction  in  ex- 
change? 

118.  Name  and  define  these  parties. 

119.  What  is  an  indorsement? 

120.  What  is  an  acceptance? 

121.  How  is  this  obligation  acknowledged? 

122.  What  is  a  bankrupt? 

123.  What  is  the  difference  between  a  bankrupt 
and  an  insolvent? 

124.  Define  bankruptcy. 

125.  Define  aliquot  parts. 

126.  Explain  how  distance  is  measured  by  time. 

127.  How  do  you  find  the  difference  in  time  cor- 
responding to  any  difference  in  longitude  ? 

128.  How  do  you  find  the  difference  in  longitude 
corresponding  to  any  difference  in  time  ? 

129.  How  do  you  find  the  time  at  one  place  when 
the  time  at  another  place  and  their  difference  of 
time  are  known? 

130.  How  do  navigators  determine  their  longi- 
tude at  sea? 

131.  What  is  alligation  ? 

132.  What  is  the  difference  between  alligation 
medial  and  alligation  alternate? 

133.  What  is  an  annuity? 

134.  Name  and  define  the  kinds  of  annuities. 

135.  What  is  involution  ? 

136.  What  is  the  power  of  a  number? 

137.  What  is  a  perfect  power?     An  imperfect 
power  ? 


56  THE  NORMAL  QUESTION  BOOK. 

138.  "What  is  the  exponent  of  a  power? 

139.  Give  the  principle  involved  in  finding  a*  y 
power  of  a  number. 

140.  Define  evolution. 

141.  What  is  the  root  of  a  number? 

142.  How  are  the  roots  of  numbers  indicated? 

143.  Define  square  root.     Cube  root. 

144.  What  is  the  difference  between  arithmetical 
progression  and  geometrical  progression? 

145.  What  five  things  are  to  be  considered  IE 
arithmetical  progression  ? 

146.  What  things  are  to  be  considered  in  geo 
metrical  progression? 

147.  What  is  a  duodecimal  ? 

148.  For  what  are  duodecimals  used  ? 

149.  What  is  mensuration  ? 

150.  What  is  magnitude? 

151.  What  is  the  measuring  unit  of  surfaces? 

152.  How  do  you  find  the  area  of  a  parallelo- 
gram, and  a  square  ? 

153.  How  do  you  find  the  area  of  a  rhombus? 

154.  How  do  you  find  the  area  of  a  trapezium  ? 

155.  How  do  you  find  the  area  of  a  triangle  ? 

156.  How  do  you  find  the  area  of  a  triangle  when 
the  three  sides  are  given  ? 

157.  How  do  you  find  the  circumference  of  a  cir- 
cle, when  the  diameter  is  given? 

158.  How  do  you  fiud  the  diameter  of  a  circle, 
when  the  circumference  is  given  T 

159.  How  do  you  find  the  area  of  a  circlet 

160.  How  do  you  find  a  mean  proportional  be- 
tween two  numbers? 


ARITHMETIC.  57 

161.  How  do  you  find  the  solidity  of  bodies  whose 
sides  are  perpendicular  to  each  other? 

162.  How  do  you  find  the  solidity  of  a  prism? 

163.  How  do  you  find  the  lateral  surface  of  a 
right  prism  ? 

164.  How  do  you  find  the  solidity  of  a  pyramid 
or  cone? 

165.  How  do  you  find  the  lateral  or  convex  sur- 
face of  a  regular  pyramid,  or  cone? 

166.  How  do  you  find  the  solidity  of  a  cylinder? 

167.  How  do  you  find  the  convex  surface  of  a 
cylinder  ? 

168.  How  do  you  find  the  surface  of  a  sphere  or 
globe? 

169.  How  do  you  find  the  solidity  of  a  sphere  or 
globe  ? 

170.  How  do  you  find  the  side  of  a  square  equal 
in  area  to  any  given  surface  ? 


58  THE  NORMAL  QUESTION  BOOK. 


ANSWERS  TO  QUESTIONS  ON  ARITHMETIC 


1.  Arithmetic,  as  a  science,  logically  investigates 
and  philosophically  classifies  and  arranges  the  prin- 
ciples and  rules  of  the  subject;  as  an  art,  it  applies 
the  principles  and  rules  for  computation  to  the 
practical  affairs  of  life. 

2.  Arithmetic  is  founded  on  NOTATION,  and  its 
operations  are  carried  on  by  means  of  ADDITION, 
SUBTRACTION,  MULTIPLICATION  and  DIVISION. 

3.  Arithmetical  language  is  the  method  of  ex- 
pressing numbers.     It  is  of  two  kinds,  oral  and 
written.     The  former  is  called  numeration  and  the 
latter  is  called  notation. 

4.  (1)  By  words,  or  common  language. 

(2)  By  figures,  called  the  Arabic  method. 

(3)  By  letters,  called  the  Roman  method. 

5.  "We  employ  characters  to  represent  the  first 
nine  numbers,  and  then   use  these  characters  to 
number  the  groups,  the  group  numbered  being  in- 
dicated by  the  position  of  the  character. 


ARITHMETIC.  59 

6.  From  the  Latin,  decem,  ten.    Ten  units  of  a 
lower  order   make  one  unit  of  the  next  higher 
order. 

7.  The  scale  of  a  system  of  notation  is  the  law 
of  relation  between  its  successive  orders  of  units. 
The  number  which  expresses  this  law  is  called  the 
radix  of  the  scale. 

8.  Upon  the  simple  but  ingenious  device  of  place. 

9.  By  the  following  seven  letters :     I.  one ;  V. 
five;  X.  ten;  L.  fifty ;  C.  one  hundred;  M.  one  thou- 
sand.   Every  time  a  letter  is  repeated  its  value  is 
repeated.     Where  a  letter  of  less  value  is  placed  be- 
fore  one  of  a  greater  value,  the  less  is  taken  from 
the  greater.     If  placed  after  it,  the  less  is  added  to 
the  greater. 

10.  A  bar  ( — )  placed  over  a  letter  increases  its 
value  a  thousand  times.    Thus  M  denotes  one  mill- 
ion. 

11.  Addition.    For  by  it  we  pass  from  unity  to 
plurality;  from  the  one  to  the  many.     This  pro- 
cess, which   gives  rise   to   numbers,  becomes   the 
primary  operation  of  arithmetic. 

12.  I.  Only  similar  numbers  can  be  added. 

II.  The  sum  is  a  number  similar  to  the  num- 
bers added. 

III.  The  sum  is  the  same  in  whatever  order  the 
numbers  are  added. 

13.  Two.  The  first  consists  in  finding  the  sums  of 
numbers  independently  of  the  notation  used  to  ex- 
press them.     The  second   consists  in   finding   the 


60  THE   NORMAL   QUESTION   BOOK. 

sum  of  numbers  as  expressed  in  written  characters. 
The  former  deals  with  small  numbers  which  can  be 
united  mentally  and  may  be  called  mental  addition; 
the  latter  is  used  with  large  numbers,  and  may  be 
called  written  addition. 

14.  Merely  for  convenience. 

15.  Subtraction. 

16.  I.  Similar  numbers  only  can  be  subtracted. 
II.  The  difference  is  a  number  similar  to  the 

minuend  and  subtrahend. 

III.  If  the  minuend  and  the  subtrahend  be 
equally  increased  or  diminished,  the  remainder  will 
be  the  same. 

IV.  The  minuend  equals  the  sum  of  the  sub- 
trahend and  remainder;  the  subtrahend  equals  the 
difference  between  the  minuend  and  remainder. 

17.  There  are  two.  1st.  The  finding  of  the  differ- 
ence between  numbers  independently  of  the  nota- 
tion employed  to  express  them.     2d.  The  finding 
of  the  difference  between  large  numbers  expressed 
in  the  Arabic  system. 

18.  Two.  First,  we  may  find  the  difference  be- 
tween two  numbers  by  counting  off  from  the  large 
number   as  many  units  as  are  contained   in   the 
smaller  number.     The  other   method   consists   in 
deriving  the  elementary  differences  by  inference  from 
the  elementary  sums. 

19.  I.  The  multiplier  is  always  an  abstract  num- 
ber. 

II.  The  product  is  always  similar  to  the  multi- 
plicand. 


ARITHMETIC.  61 

HI.  The  product  of  two  numbers  is  the  same, 
whichever  is  made  the  multiplier. 

IV.  If  the  multiplicand  be  multiplied  by  all  the 
parts  of  the  multiplier,  the  sum  of  all  the  partial 
products  will  be  the  true  product. 

V.  The  multiplicand  equals  the  quotient  of  the 
product  divided  by  the  multiplier;  the  multiplier 
equals  the  quotient  of  the  product  divided  by  the 
multiplicand. 
^0.  Because  they  make  the  product. 

21.  Division  is  the  process  of  finding  the  quo- 
tient of  two  numbers. 

22.  The  terms  of  division  are  the  dividend,  divi- 
sor, and  quotient. 

23.  The  quotient  depends  on  both  dividend  and 
divisor. 

24.  If  one  of  these  terms  is  fixed,  a  change  in 
the  other  changes  the  quotient.     But  if  both  are 
changed,  these  changes  may  neutralize  each  other, 
and  the  quotient  remain  the  same. 

25.  (1)  Multiplying  the  dividend  or  dividing  the 
divisor  by  any  number,  multiplies  the  quotient  by 
that  number. 

(2)  Dividing  the  dividend  or  multiplying  the 
divisor  by  any  number,  divides  the  quotient  by  that 
number. 

(3)  Multiplying  or  dividing  both  dividend  and 
divisor  by  the  same  number  does  not  change  the 
quotient. 


C2  THE   NORMAL    QUESTION  BOOK. 

26.  Ans.  1.  Several  recent  writers  take  the  posi< 
tion  that  a  concrete  number  may  be  divided  by  an 
abstract  number,  because  in  practice  we  thus  di- 
vide a  concrete  number  into  equal  parts.  This  is  a 
subordination  of  science  to  practice,  which  is  neither 
philosophical  nor  necessary.  The  practical  case 
which  they  thus  try  to  include  in  the  theory  of  the 
subject,  admits  of  a  scientific  and  simple  explana- 
tion, without  any  modification  of  the  fundamental 
idea  of  division  ;  and  when  thus  explained  it  be- 
comes apparent  that  the  two  terms  are  similar 
numbers. 

The  dividend  and  divisor  are  always  similar 
numbers.  The  quotient  is  always  an  abstract  num- 
ber. 

Ans.  II.  The  quotient  may  be  either  abstract  or 
concrete, — 

(a)  It  will  be  an  abstract  number,  when  the 
dividend  and  divisor  are  both  abstract,  or  both  con- 
crete numbers.     (Ex.  1  and  2.) 

(b)  The  quotient  will  be  a  concrete  number, 
when  the  dividend  is  a  concrete,  and  the  divisor  an 
abstract  number.    (Ex.  3.) 

(c)  Either  the  divisor  or  the  quotient,  must  al- 
ways be  an  abstract  number.     (Ex.  1,  2  and  3.) 

)        (d)  An  abstract  number  can  not  be  divided  bj 
a  concrete  number.     (Ex.  4.) 

(1)  (2) 

15  cents  |  3  cents.  15  |  3 

~~5~  5 

(3)  (4) 

15  cents  |  3.  15          |  3  cents. 

5  cents.  Impossible. 


ARITHMETIC.  6^ 

"Writing  in  the  places  of  numbers  words  indi- 
cating the  kind  of  numbers  used,  we  have: 

(1)  (2) 

Concrete  |  Concrete.  Abstract  |  Abstract. 

Abstract.  Abstract. 

(3)  (4) 

Concrete  |  Abstract.  Abstract  |  Concrete. 

ConcretftT"  Impossible. 

27.  Numbers  may  be  classified  as  follows: 
I.  As  even  and  odd. 
II.  As  prime  and  composite. 

III.  As  integral  and  fractional. 

IV.  As  abstract  and  concrete. 
V.  As  simple  and  compound. 

|VI.  As  like  and  unlike. 

38,  An  even  number  is  one  that  can  be  divided 
by  2  without  a  remainder.  An  odd  number  is  one 
that  can  not  be  divided  by  2  without  a  remainder. 

A  prime  number  is  one  that  has  no  factors,  and 
therefore  has  no  exact  divisor. 

A  composite  number  is  one  that  may  be  di- 
vided, and  always  is  the  product  of  two  or  more 
factors. 

An  integral  number,  or  integer,  expresses  whole 
things.  Thus,  281 ;  78  boys. 

A  fractional  number,  or  fraction,  expresses 
equal  parts  of  a  thing.  Thus,  half  a  dollar ;  three- 
fourths  of  an  hour. 


34  THE   NORMAL   QUESTION   BOOK. 

An  abstract  number  is  one  that  is  not  used  in 
connection  with  any  specified  thing. 

A  concrete  number  is  one  that  is  used  in  con- 
nection with  some  specified  thing. 

A  simple  number  is  an  abstract  number,  or  a 
concrete  number  having  but  one  denomination ;  as, 
three,  three  feet. 

A  compound  number  consists  of  two  or  more 
concrete  numbers  having  different  denominations ; 
(as,  three  feet,  six  inches. 

Like  or  similar  numbers  are  those  which  have 
the  same  unit.  Thus,  three  yards  and  five  yards 
are  similar  numbers. 

Unlike  or  dissimilar  numbers  are  those  which 
do  not  have  the  same  unit.  Thus,  three  yards  and 
three  books  are  dissimilar  numbers. 

29.  The   factors   of  a  number  are  the  integers 
which  being  multiplied  together  will  produce  that 
number. 

30.  A  prime  factor  of  a  number  is  its  prime  di- 
visor. 

31.  Factoring  is  the  process  of  separating  a  num- 
ber into  its  factors. 

32.  A  divisor  or  measure  of  a  number  is  a  num- 
ber that  will  divide  it  without  a  remainder. 

33.  A  multiple  of  a  number  is  the  product  ob- 
tained by  taking  it  a  certain  number  of  times;  15 
is  a  multiple  of  5,  being  equal  to  5  taken  3  times. 


ARITHMETIC.  65 

A  multiple  of  a  number  is  any  number  which 
it  will  exactly  divide. 

34.  A  common  divisor  of  two  or  more  numbers, 
is  a  number  which  will  divide  them  without  a  re- 
mainder.    Thus  2  is  a  common  divisor  of  4,  6,  8, 
12, 16. 

A  common  multiple  of  two  or  more  numbers, 
is  a  number  which  can  be  divided  by  each  of  them 
without  a  remainder.  Thus,  12  is  a  common  mul- 
tiple of  2,  3,  4. 

35.  The  greatest  common  divisor  of  two  or  more 
numbers,  is  the  greatest  number  which  will  divide 
them  without  a  remainder.     Thus,  6  is  the  greatest 
common  divisor  of  12,  18,  and  24. 

The  least  common  multiple  of  two  or  more 
numbers,  is  the  least  number  which  can  be  divided 
by  each  of  them  without  a  remainder.  Thus,  12 
is  the  least  common  multiple  of  4  and  6,  for  it  is 
the  least  number  which  can  be  exactly  divided  by 
them. 

36.  A  fraction  is  a  number  which  expresses  one 
or  more  of  the  equal  parts  into  which  a  unit  is  di- 
vided. 

37.  The  unit  of  the  fraction  is  the  unit,  or  whole 
thing,  which  is  considered  as  divided  into  parts. 
Thus,  the  unit  of  the  fraction  of  a  dollar  is  one 
dollar. 

A  fractional  unit  is  one  of  the  equal  parts  of 
the  unit  of  the  fraction.  Thus,  one-half  is  the  frac- 
tional unit  of  halves. 

38.  A  common  fraction  is  one  in  which  the  nu- 
5 


66  THE  NORMAL   QUESTION  BOOK. 

merator  and  denominator  are  both  expressed  by 
figures. 

39.  Fractions  are  divided  with  regard  to  their 
value,  as  compared  with  the  unit,  into  proper  and 
improper  fractions ;  with  regard  to  their  form,  into 
simple,  compound  and  complex. 

40.  A  proper  fraction  is  one  whose  numerator  is 
less  than  its  denominator;  as,  }. 

An  improper  fraction  is  one  whose  numerator 
is  equal  to  or  greater  thaiV  its  denominator ;  as,  f ,  j-. 

A  simple  fraction  is  one  not  united  with 
another,  and  both  of  whose  terms  are  integers^ 
as,  f. 

A  compound  fraction  is  a  fraction  of  a  fraction  ^ 
as,  f  off. 

A  complex  fraction  is  one  having  a  fraction  in 
one  or  both  of  its  terms ;  as,  f  of  6,  f 

I 

41.  The  terms  of  a  fraction  are  the  numerator  and 
denominator.  •  The  number  below  the  line  is  called 
the  denominator.     It  shows  into  how  many  equal 
parts  the  whole  is  divided,  and  gives  name  to  the 
parts.     The  number  above  the   line  is  called  the 
numerator.     It  shows  how  many  of  the  equal  parts 
denoted  by  the  denominator  are  taken. 

42.  It  has  been   stated  by  some  writers,  and 
seems  frequently  to  be  the  idea  of  pupils,  that  a 
fraction  is  not  a  number.     This,  however,  is  a  mis- 
take, as  will  appear  from  a  slight  consideration  of 


ARITHMETIC.  67 

the  matter.  Newton's  definition  of  a  number  pro- 
vides for  the  fractional  number  when  the  object, 
measured  is  a  definite  part  of  the  measure ;  it  con- 
sequently appears  that  the  fraction  is  a  number,  if 
we  accept  his  definition  as  correct.  The  definition, 
"A  fraction  is  a  number  of  equal  parts  of  unity," 
also  makes  it  clear  that  a  fraction  is  a  number. 
Again,  if  it  is  not  a  number,  what  kind  of  a  quan- 
tity is  it;  and  why  should  it  be  treated  in  arithme- 
tic, the  science  of  numbers? 

Five  inches  is  certainly  a  number;  hence  its 
equivalent,  five-twelfths  of  a  foot,  is  also  a  number. 
Numbers  are  of  two  classes,  integers  and  fractions; 
and  fractions  are  numbers,  as  much  so  as  integers. 
The  fractional  number,  it  will  be  noticed,  involves 
two  ideas — first,  the  integral  unit;  and  second,  the 
fractional  unit.  In  an  integer  we  have  the  idea  of 
a  number  of  units;  in  the  fraction  we  have,  not 
only  an  idea  of  a  number  of  units,  but  also  the  re» 
lation  of  the  fractional  unit  to  the  integral  unit. 

43.  A  fraction  is  not  a  denominate  number. 

44.  A  mixed  number  is  an  integer  and  a  fraction 
united;  as,  5J. 

45.  The  reciprocal  of  a  number  is  1  divided  by 
that  number.    Thus,  the  reciprocal  of  6  is  £. 


68  THE  NORMAL  QUESTION  BOOK. 


4t>. 


'1.  Number  to  a  fraction. 

2.  Fraction  to  a  number. 

3.  To  higher  terms. 

4.  To  lower  terms. 

5.  Compound  to  simple. 

6.  Dissimilar  to  similar. 


1.  Reduction  .  , .  < 


2   Addition          /1-  Denominators 

"  \  2.  Denominators  unlike. 

Q    Q,,T^.«    *•«        f  !•  Denominators  alike. 

3.  Subtraction. . 1 2;  Denominator8  unlike< 

( 1.  Fraction  by  a  number. 

4.  Multiplication  <  2.  Number  by  a  fraction. 

(  3.  Fraction  by  a  fraction. 

f 1.  Fraction  by  a  number. 

5.  Division  .  .  ,  .  <  2.  Number  by  a  fraction. 

(  3.  Fraction  by  a  fraction. 

1.  Number  to  a  number. 
*    -D  i  *;™  J  2.  Fraction  to  a  number. 

6.  Relation  ....<8'  Numl?er  to  a  fraction. 

4.  Fraction  to  a  fraction. 


47.  There  are  two  methods  of  developing  the 
subject  of  common  fractions,  which  may  be  distin- 
guished as  the  Inductive  and  Deductive  methods. 
By  the  inductive  method,  we  solve  each  case  by 
analysis,  and  derive  the  rules,  or  methods  of  oper- 
ation, from  these  analyses,  by  inference  or  induc- 
tion. The  method  is  called  inductive,  because  it 
proceeds  from  the  analysis  of  particular  problems 
to  a  general  method  which  applies  to  all  problems 
of  a  given  class.  By  the  deductive  method  we  first 
establish  a  few  general  principles  by  demonstration, 
and  then  derive  the  rules,  or  methods  of  operation, 


ARITHMETIC.  69 

from  these  principles.  The  method  is  called  de- 
ductive because  it  proceeds  from  the  general  prin- 
ciple to  the  particular  problem.  We  will  illustrate 
the  difference  of  these  two  methods  by  a  problem 
in  compound  fractions.  Take  the  question,  "  What 
is  |  of  f  ?"  The  analysis  is  as  follows:  |  of  %  is 
one  of  the  three  equal  parts  into  which  \  may  be  di- 
vided ;  if  each  5th  is  divided  into  3  equal  parts,  £ 
or  the  unit  will  be  divided  into  5  times  3,  or  15 
equal  parts,  and  each  part  will  be  ^j  hence  ^  of  £ 
is  ^,  and  £  of  £  is  4  times  ^  or  ^,  and  f  of  £  is  2 
times  j^-,  or  fa.  Examining  the  analysis  we  see 
that  we  have  multiplied  the  two  denominators  to- 
gether and  the  two  numerators  together,  from 
which  we  derive  the  rule  for  the  reduction  of  com- 
pound fractions.  By  the  deductive  method  we 
would  reason  as  follows  :  By  a  principle  previously 
demonstrated,  J  off,  which  is  the  same  as  dividing 
£  by  3,  is  fa  ;  and  f  of  £  ,  by  another  principle,  is  ^-. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  the  deductive  method  is 
much  shorter  than  the  inductive  method,  because 
while  the  former  explains  every  point  involved,  the 
latter  makes  use  of  principles  previously  demon- 
strated. 

48.  A  continued  fraction  is  a  fraction  whose  num- 
erator is  1,  and  denominator  an  integer  plus  a  frac- 
tion whose  numerator  is  also  1  and  denominator  a 
similar  fraction,  and  so  on. 
Thus,  ^=i 


+  J,  or  thus, 

Id.,  p.  434,  eh.  4- 


70         THE  NORMAL  QUESTION  BOOK. 

49.  A  decimal  fraction  is  a  fraction  whose  ck 
nominator  is  not  expressed ;  but  is  understood  to  b*j 
such  a  power  of  ten  as  is  indicated  by  the  number 
of  figures  at  the  right  of  the  separatrix. 

CRITICISM. — In  consulting  Ray's  Higher  Arith- 
metic, I  find  this  definition  of  a  decimal  fraction : 

"A  decimal  fraction  is  one  which  derives  its 
name  from  the  Latin  word  decem,  meaning  ten; 
and  is  so  called  because  its  denominator  is  always 
1  with  cyphers  annexed ;  being  either  10  or  the 
product  of  several  10's." 

This  definition  is  worthless,  because  it  includes 
a  large  class  of  common  fractions.  Read  Prof, 
Davies,  in  his  University  Arithmetic:  "A  decimal 
fraction  is  one  in  which  the  unit  is  divided  accord- 
ing to  the  scale  of  tens." 

REMARK. — The  separatrix  is  the  most  impor- 
tant character  used  in  decimals,  and  no  pains  shoulc 
be  spared  to  impress  this  on  the  minds  of  pupils. 

50.  A  decimal  fraction  may  be  expressed  in  the 
form  of  a  common  fraction,  or  by  means  of  a  deci' 
mal  scale.     When  expressed  by  the  scale,  it  is  dis- 
tinguished from  the  general  meaning  of  the  term 
decimal  fraction  by  calling  it  a  decimal.     A  deci- 
mal may  thus  be  defined  as  a  decimal  fraction  ex- 
pressed by  the  decimal  method  of  notation.    Thus, 
•jffr» -j^j-i  are  decimal  fractions,  but   not   decimals; 
while  .5,  .45,  are  both  decimal  fractions  and  deci- 
mals. 

51.  In  the  treatment  of  decimals,  the  first  thing 


ARITHMETIC.  71 

to  be  considered  is  the  method  of  reading  and  writ- 
ing them,  or  their  numeration  and  notation. 

52.  (1)  To  read  a  decimal,  read  it  as  though  it 
were  an  integer,  and  add  the  name  of  the  right 
hand  order. 

(2)  To  write  a  decimal,  write  it  as  an  integer; 
and  so  place  the  decimal  point  that  the  right  hand 
figure  shall  stand  in  the  order  denoted  by  the  name 
of  the  decimal. 

(3)  It  is  seen  from  the  decimal  scale,  that  the 
tens  of  any  number  of  tenths,  the  hundreds  of  any 
number  of  hundredths,  the  thousands  of  any  num- 
ber of  thousandths,  etc.,  each  falls  in  the  order  of 
units   when   the   decimal   is  expressed   decimally. 
Thus,  42   tenths,  written  decimally,  is   4.2,  the  4 
(tens)  falling  in  units'  order;  1265  hundredths,  writ- 
ten decimally,  is  12.65,  the  2  (hundreds)  falling  in 
units'  order;   and   425  thousandths,  written  deci- 
mally is  .425  or  0.425,  the  0  (thousands)  falling  in 
units'  order.     Hence,  the  following 

RULE. — To  write  a  decimal,  begin  at  the  left 
and  write  the  term  corresponding  to  the  name  of 
the  decimal,  in  the  order  of  units. 


(4)  There  are  two  methods  of  reading  deci- 
mals, which  may  be  expressed  as  follows : 

(a)  Begin  at  the  decimal  point  and  read  in 
succession  the  value  of  each  term  belonging  to  the 
decimal,  or 

(b)  Read  the  decimal  as  a  whole  number,  and 
the  name  of  the  right  hand  decimal  place. 


72  THE   NORMAL   QUESTION   BOOK. 

Methods  of  writing  decimals  : 

(a)  Fix  the  decimal  point  and  write  each  term 
in  its  proper  decimal  place. 

(b)  Write  the  numerator  as  an  integer,  and 
then  place  the  decimal  point  so  that  the  right  hand 
term  shall  express  the  denomination  of  the  decimal. 

(c)  Write  the  numerator  as  an  integer,  and 
then  begin  at  the  right  and  numerate  backward, 
filling  vacant  places  with  ciphers,  until  we  reach 
the  required  denomination,  and  to  the  expression 
thus  obtained,  prefix  the  decimal  point.     Thus,  to 
write  475  millionths,  we  first  write  475 ;  then  be- 
ginning at  the  5,  we  numerate  toward  the  left,  saying 
tenths,  hundredths,  thousandths,  ten-thousandths 
(writing  a  cipher),  hundred-thousandths  (writing  a 
cipher),  millionths  (writing  a  cipher),  and  then  place 
the  decimal  point. 

53.  The  denominator  of  a  decimal  will  always  be 
the  unit  1,  with  as  many  ciphers  annexed  as  are 
equal  to  the  number  of  figures  in  the  decimal  or 
numerator. 

54.  The  value   of   any  decimal   figure  depends 
upon  its  place  from  the  decimal  point.     Thus,  .3  is 
ten  times  .03. 

55.  Decimals  increase  from  right  to  left,  and  de^ 
crease  from  left  to  right,  in  a  tenfold  ratio ;   and 
therefore  may  be  added,  subtracted,  multiplied  and 
divided  the  same  as  whole  numbers. 

56.  A  pure  decimal  consists  of  a  decimal  only. 
Thus,  .35,  which  is  read  35  hundredths,  is  a  pure 
decimal. 


ARITHMETIC.  .          75 

57.  A  mixed  decimal  consists  of  an  integer  and 
a  decimal.  Thus,  15.7,  which  is  read,  15  ones  and 
7  tenths,  or  15  and  7  tenths,  is  a  mixed  decimal. 

5b\  A  complex  decimal  consists  of  a  decimal  with 
a  common  fraction  annexed.  Thus,  .005f ,  which  is 
read  5  j  thousandths,  is  a  complex  decimal. 

59.  The  names  of  the  decimal  orders  are  derived 
from  the  names  of  the  orders  of  integers. 

60.  A  decimal  in  which  one  or  more  figures  are 
constantly  repeated,  is  called  a  circulating  decimal. 

61.  A  denominate  number  is  a  concrete  number 
in  which  the  unit  of  measure  is  established  by  law 
or  custom.    Thus,  5  yards,  3  feet,  7  pounds,  3 
ounces,  are  denominate  numbers. 

62.  A  simple  denominate  number  is  a  denomi- 
nate number  composed  of  units  of  the  same  denom- 
inations.   Thus,  5  feet,  9  pounds,  3  miles,  are  sim- 
ple denominate  numbers. 

63.  A  compound  denominate  number  is  a  denom- 
inate number  composed  of  units  of  two  or  more 
denominations  which  are   related   to   each   other. 
Thus,  6  feet  and  4  inches,  8  hours  and  32  minutes, 
are  compound  denominate  numbers. 

64.  A  standard  unit  is  a  unit  of  measure  from 
which  the  other  units  of  the  same  kind  may  be  de- 
rived. 


74        .  THE   NORMAL   QUESTION   BOOK. 

65.  (1)  Value;  (2)  Weight;  (3)  Length;  (4)  Sur- 
face ;    (5)  Volume ;    (6)  Capacity ;    (7)  Angles ;    (8) 
Time. 

66.  Money  is  the  measure  of  the  value  of  things. 
It  is  of  two  kinds,  coins  and  paper  money.     In  the 
United  States  the  standard  unit  is  the  dollar.     la 
English  money  the  standard  unit  is  the  pound. 

67.  The  standard  unit  of  weight  is  the  Troy 
pound. 

68.  The  standard  unit  of  length  is  the  yard.     It 
is  determined  by  the  length  of  a  pendulum  which 
vibrates  seconds  in  a  vacuum  at  the  level  of  the 
sea,  in  the  latitude  of  London. 

69.  The  standard  unit  of  surface  is  the  square 
yard  for  ordinary  measurement,  and  the  acre  for 
land. 

70.  The  standard  unit  of  volume  is  the  cubic 
yard  for  ordinary  measurement,  and  the  cord  for 
wood. 

71.  The  standard  unit  of  capacity  is  the  gallon 
for  fluids,  and  the  bushel  fo"  dry  substances. 

72.  The  standard  unit  of  angular  measure  is  the 
right  angle,  or,  in  practice,  one  degree  of  a  circle. 

73.  The  standard  unit  of  time  is  the  day.     This 
is  determined  by  the  revolution  of  the  earth  upon 
its  axis. 

74.  The  metric  system  is   a  decimal  system  of 
weights  and  measures,  having  the  meter  for  the 
base  or  unit. 


ARITHMETIC.  75 

75.  Percentage  is  the  name  applied  to  computa- 
tions in  which  100  is  the  unit  or  measure. 

76.  The  rate  is  the  number  of  hundredths.    The 
rate  per  cent,  is  the  fraction  which  denotes  how 
many  hundredths  are  taken.    Thus,  in  3%,  or  y^,  3 
is  the  rate,  and  -yj^-  itself  the  rate  per  cent. 


77.  Problems  in  percentage  involve  the  following 
elements: 

(1)  The  base  is  the  number  of  which  the  per 
cent,  is  taken. 

(2)  The  rate    is  the   number   of    hundredths 
taken. 

(3)  The  percentage  is  the  number  which  is  a 
certain  number  of  hundredths  of  the  base. 

(4)  The  amount  is  the  sum  of  the  base  and  per- 
centage. 

(5)  The  difference  is  the  base,  less  the  percent- 
age. 

78.  Any  per  cent.,  being  so  many  hundredthsy 
may  be  operated  with  either  as  a  common  fraction 
or  a  decimal;  but  the  decimal  form  is  preferred  as 
the  easier.     1%  is  either  -yj^  or  .01.     Any  part  of 
\%  may  be  expressed  decimally  by  taking  the  like 
part  of  .01.    Thus,  \%=\  of  .01=.0025.     Any  part 
of  \cf0  that  can  not  be  exactly  expressed  as  a  deci- 
mal may  be  written  as  a  common  fraction  on  the 
right  of  the  order  of  hundredths.     Thus,  |%=.00£. 
The  following  examples  will  show  how  to  express 
different  rates  per  cent,  decimally  :  2%  =.02;  100% 


76  THE   NORMAL   QUESTION   BOOK. 

79.  I.  Base  and  rate  given,  to  find  the  percentage. 
Multiply  the  base  by  the  rate. 

II.  Base  and  percentage  given,  to  find  the  rate. 
Divide  the  percentage  by  the  base. 

III.  Rate  and  percentage  given  to  find  the  base. 
Divide  the  percentage  by  the  rate. 

IV.  Base  and  rate  given  to  find  either  amount 
or  difference. 

Multiply  the  base  by  1  plus  the  rate,  for  the 
amount ;  and  by  1  minus  the  rate,  for  the  difference. 
V.  Amount  or  difference  and  rate  given,  to 
find  the  base. 

.Divide  the  amount  by  1  plus  the  rate ;  and  the 
difference  by  1  minus  the  rate. 

80.  The  rules  of  percentage  are  applied  in  many 
of  the  most  common  mercantile  transactions — in 
computing  interest,  discount,  commission,   taxes, 
insurance,  duties,  and  especially  profit  and  loss. 

81.  Profit  and  loss  are  the  terms  used  to  indicate 
gain  or  loss  in  business  transactions. 

82.  Commission  is  an  allowance  made  to  an  agent 
for  selling  goods  for  another. 

The  commission  allowed  to  a  broker  is  called 
brokerage. 

83.  An  agent  is  one  who  transacts  business  for 
another.     A  factor  is  an  agent  who  buys  and  sells 
or  transacts  mercantile  business  for  another.     A 
broker  is  one  who  buys  and  sells  stocks,  real  estate, 
bonds,  and  the  like,  for  another  person.     A  COD- 


ARITHMETIC.  77 

signee  is  the  person  to  whom  goods  are  sent  for 
sale;  the  sender  is  called  the  consignor. 

84.  Duties,  or  customs,  are  taxes  levied  on  im- 
ported goods,  for  the  support  of  government  and 
protection  of  home  industry. 

85.  Specific  duties  are  customs  assessed  on  the 
quantity  of  goods  imported,  without  reference  to 
their  value,  and  ad  valorem  duties  are  customs  as- 
sessed on  the  cost  of  goods  in  the  country  from 
which  they  are  imported. 

86.  A  list  of  the  rates  of  duties  to  be  collected  is 
called  a  tariff'. 

87.  Insurance  is  a  guaranteed  indemity  for  loss. 

88.  There  are  five  different  kinds  of  insurance : 
Fire  insurance  secures  against  loss  or  damage  by 
fire ;  marine  insurance,  against  the  dangers  of  nav- 
igation; accident  insurance,  against  the  casualties 
to  travelers  and  others;  health  insurance  secures  a 
weekly  allowance  during  sickness;  life  insurance 
secures  a  certain  sum,  on  the  death  of  the  insured, 
to  some  party  named  in  the  contract. 

89.  The  underwriter  is  the  insurer — the  person 
or  company  that  takes  the  risk.     The  policy  is  the 
written  contract.     The  premium  is  the  sum  paid 
the  underwriter  for  taking  the  risk. 

90.  A  tax  is  a  sum  assessed  on  the  person,  prop- 
erty, or  income  of  an  individual,  for  any  public 


78  THE   NORMAL   QUESTION  BOOK. 

purpose,  such  as  the  support  of  government, 
maintenance  of  schools,  etc. 


91.  The  interest-bearing  notes  issued  by  nations, 
states,  cities,  railroad  companies,  and  other  corpo- 
rations, as  a  means  of  borrowing  money,  are  calud 
bonds.     The  coupons  attached  to  bonds  are  due- 
bills  for  the  interest,  which,  as  the  interest  becomes 
due,  are  cut  off  and  presented  for  payment. 

The  several  classes  of  bonds  issued  by  the 
United  States  Government  are  called  United  States 
securities,  or  government  securities,  the  principal 
of  which  are  known  as  sixes  of  1881,  five-twenties, 
and  ten-forties. 

92.  Interest  is  the  premium  paid  for  the  use  of 
money. 

93.  Simple  interest  ir  interest  on  the   principal 
only.     Compound  interest  is  interest  on  the  prin- 
cipal and  also  on  the  interest  which,  at  regular  in- 
tervals of  time,  is  added  to  the  principal. 

94.  A  note,  or  a  promissony  note,  is  a  written 
promise  to  pay  a  certain  sum  of  money  for  value 
received. 


9r5.  A  time  note  1's  one  made  payable  at  a  speci 
fied  time.  A  negotiable  note  is  one  so  made  that  it 
can  be  sold  or  transferred. 

A   bank   note  is   a   note   payable  at  a  bank. 
Bank  bills  are  also  called  bank  notes. 


ARITHMETIC.  79 

A  joint  note  is  a  note  signed  by  two  or  more 
persons  who  are  jointly  liable  for  its  payment.  A 
joint  and  several  note  is  a  note  signed  by  two  or 
more  persons  who  are  both  jointly  and  singly  liable 
for  its  payment. 

96.  A  draft  is  an  order  made  by  one  person  upon 
another  to  pay  a  specified  sum  to  a  third  person 
named.     It  is  also  called  a  bill  of  exchange. 

97.  Discount  is  a  sum  deducted  for  the  payment, 
before  it  becomes  due,  of  a  note  or  other  debt  not 
drawing  interest. 

Present  worth,  or  proceeds,  is  the  face  of  an 
obligation,  minus  the  discount. 

98.  True  discount  is  the  difference  between  the 
present  worth  and  the  face  of  the  debt.     In  other 
words,  it  is  the  interest  on  the  present  worth  for 
the  given  time.     Bank  discount  is  greater  than  true 
discount,  the  former  being  computed  on  the  face  of 
the  note  or  amount,  the  latter  on  the  present  worth 
or  principal. 

99.  Ratio  is  the  relation  that  one  quantity  bears 
to  another  of  the  same  kind.     It  is  represented  by 
the  quotient  arising  from  dividing  one  by  the  other. 
The  ratio  of  8  to  2  is  4. 

100.  The  two  numbers  compared  are  called  the 
terms  of  the  ratio. 

101.  The  ratio  of  two  numbers  is  expressed  by 
placing  a  colon  (:)  between  them;  as  5:12. 

A  ratio  is  also  expressed  in  the  form  of  a  frac- 


80  THE  NORMAL   QUESTION  BOOK. 

tion,  the  antecedent  being  made  the  numerator  and 
the  consequent  the  denominator.     Thus,  5:12=T5¥. 

102.  A  simple  ratio  is  the  ratio  of  two  numbers ; 
as  5:8,  or  f:|-.     A  compound  ratio  is  the  product 
of  two  or  more  simple  ratio;  as,  (5:6)  +  (f:10). 

103.  Proportion  is  an  expression  of  equal  ratios. 

104.  Placing  a  double  colon  (: :)  between  them, 
forms  the  proportion  3:5::6:10,  read  3  is  to  5  as  6  is 
to  10,  or  the  ratio  of  3  to  5  is  equal  to  the  ratio  of 
6  to  10. 

105.  A  proportion  with  more   than  two  equal 
ratios  is  called  a  continued  proportion,  as  3  :  5  : :  6  : 
10::  9:15. 

106.  Since  each  ratio  has  an  antecedent  and  con- 
sequent, every  proportion  has  two  antecedents  and 
two  consequents,  the  1st  and  3d  terms  being  the 
antecedents,  and  the  2d  and  4th  the  consequents. 

107.  Ratio  is  the  relation  between  two  numbers 
shown  by  their  quotient;  proportion  is  the  relation 
between  two  ratios  shown  by  their  equality.     The 
former  has  two  terms,  the  latter  four. 

108.  A  simple  proportion  is  an  equality  between 
two  simple  ratios. 

109.  A  direct  proportion  is  one  in  which  each 
term  increases  or  diminishes,  as  the  one  on  which  it 
depends  increases  or  diminishes. 

110.  An  inverse  proportion  is  one  in  which  each 


ARITHMETIC.  81 

term  increases  as  the  term  upon  which  it  depends 
diminishes,  or  diminishes  as  it  increases. 

111.  A  compound  proportion  is  a  proportion  in 
which  either  ratio  is  compound. 

112.  A  partnership  is  the  association  of  two  or 
more  individuals   for  the  transaction  of  business; 
the  persons  so  associated  are  called  partners.^ 

113.  A  simple  partnership  is  one  in  which  each 
of  the  partners  has  his  capital  invested  for  the  same 
time.     A  compound  partnership  is  that  in  which 
the  capital  of  the  partners  is  employed  for  different 
periods  of  time. 

114.  Analysis,  in  arithmetic,  is  the  process  of  ar- 
riving at  a  required  result,  not  by  formal  rules,  but 
by  tracing  out  relations  and  reasoning  from  what 
is  known  to  what  is  unknown.    We  generally  rea- 
son from  the  given  number  to  1,  and  from  1  to  the 
required  number. 

115.  Exchange  is  a  method  of  remitting  money 
from  one  place  to  another,  or  of  making  payments 
by  written  orders. 

116.  A  bill  of  exchange  is  a  written  request  or  or- 
der upon  one  person  to  pay  a  certain  sum  to  an- 
other person,  or  to  his  order,  at  a  specified  time. 

117.  There  are  always  three  parties,  and  usually 
four,  to  a  transaction  in  exchange. 

6 


82  THE   NORMAL   QUESTION  BOOK. 

118.  The  drawer  or  maker  is  the  person  who 
signs  the  order  or  bill.  The  drawee  is  the  person 
to  whom  the  order  is  addressed.  The  payee  is  the 
person  to  whom  the  money  is  ordered  to  be  paid. 
The  buyer  or  remitter  is  the  person  who  purchases 
the  bill. 

i  119.  The  indorsement  of  a  bill  is  the  writing 
upon  its  back,  by  which  the  payee  relinquishes  his 
title,  and  transfers  the  payment  to  another. 

120.  The   acceptance  of   a  bill   is  the   promise 
which  the  drawee  makes  when  the  bill  is  presented 
to  him  to  pay  it  at  maturity. 

121.  This  obligation  is  usually  acknowledged  by 
writing  the  word  "Accepted,"  with  his  signature 
across  the  face  of  the  bill. 

122.  A  bankrupt  is  a  person  who  fails  in  busi- 
ness and  has  not  property  enough  to  pay  all  his 
debts. 

123.  The   term   bankrupt   is  strictly  applicable 
only  to  a  trader,  while  the  term  insolvent  applies 
to  any  person  who  is  unable  to  pay  his  debts. 

124.  Bankruptcy  is  a  failure  in  business^  with 
inability  to  pay  all  debts. 

125.  Aliquot  parts  is  a  useful  method  of  finding 
a  product,  when  one  or  both  of  the  factors  is  a 
compound  number. 

126.  Every  circle  is  supposed  to  be  divided  into 
360  equal  parts,  called  degrees.     Since  the  sun  ap- 
pears to  pass  from  east  to  west  round  the  earth,  or 
through  360°,  once  in  every  24  hours,  it  will  pass 


ARITHMETIC.  83 

through  Jj  of  360°,  or  15°  of  the  distance,  in  1 
hour;  and  V  of  distance  in  -^  of  1  hour,  or  4  min- 
utes; and  V  of  distance  in  -^  of  4  minutes,  or  4 
seconds. 

127.  Divide  the  difference  in  longitude,  expressed 
in  degrees,  minutes  and  seconds,  by  15,  and   the 
respective  quotients   will  be   hours,  minutes,  and 
seconds  of  time. 

128.  Multiply  the  difference  in  time,  expressed 
in  hours,  minutes,  and  seconds,  by  15,  and  the  re- 
spective products  will  be  degrees,  minutes,  and  sec- 
onds of  longitude. 

129.  When  the  second  place  is  east  of  the  first, 
add  their  difference  of  time;  when  it  is  west  of  the 
first,  subtract  their  difference  of  time. 

130.  Taking  with  them  a  chronometer  (an  accu- 
rate watch)  set  to  mark  the  time  at  a  given  place 
(as  Greenwich  or  "Washington),  they  ascertain  by 
observation  of  the  sun  with  the  sextant  the  time  at 
the  spot  they  are  in,  reduce  the  difference  of  time 
to  difference  of  longitude,  and  thus  find  that  they 
are  so  many  degrees  east  or  west  of  the  meridian 
of  the  place  for  which  their  chronometer  is  set. 

131.  Alligation  treats  of  the  mixing  or  combin- 
ing of  two  or  more  articles  of  different  values. 

132.  Alligation  medial  is  the  process  of  finding 
the  average  value  or  quality  of  the  several  articles. 
Alligation  alternate  is  the  process  of  determining 


84  THE  NORMAL   QUESTION   BOOK. 

the  proportion  of  the  several  articles  used  in  form* 
ing  a  mixture. 

133.  An  annuity  is  ra  sum  of  money  which  ie 
payable  at  regular  periods  of  time. 

134.  A  certain  annuity  is  one  that  continues  foi 
a  fixed  period  of  time.     A  perpetual  annuity,  or 
perpetuity,  is  one  that  continues  forever.     A  con- 
tingent annuity  is  one  that  begins  or  ends,  on  the 
occurrence  of  certain  specified  future  events,  as  on 
the  death  of  one  or  more  persons.     An  annuity  in 
reversion  is  one  that  begins  at  a  specified  future 
time,  or  on  the  occurrence  of  a  specified  future 
event.    An  annuity  in  arrears,  or  forborne,  is  one 
the  payments  of  which  have  been  allowed  to  accu- 
mulate, instead  of  being  paid  when  due. 

135.  Involution  is  the  process  of  finding  a  power 
of  a  number. 

136.  A  power  of  a  number  is  the  result  obtained 
by  using  it  a  certain  number  of  times  as  a  factor. 

137.  Any  number  that  is  the  product  of  equal 
factors  is  called  a  perfect  power.    Any  number 
that  is  not  tha  product  of  equal  factors  is  called  an, 
imperfect  power. 

ANSWER  2.  A  perfect  power  is  a  number  whose 
root  can  be  found.  An  imperfect  power  is  a  num- 
ber whose  root  can  not  be  found  exactly. 

138.  The  exponent  of  a  power  is  a  number  placed 
at  the  right  of  the  root  and  just  above  it,  to  show 
the  number  of  times  the  root  is  to  be  used  as  a  fac-* 


ARITHMETIC.  85 

tor.  It  also  denotes  the  degree  of  the  power. 
Thus,  21  denotes  the  second  power  of  2,  or  2x2; 
23=2X2X2,  or  the  third  power  of  2. 

139.  ^.ny  power  of  1  is  1 ,  any  power  of  a  num- 
ber greater  than  1  is  greater  than  the  number  itself; 
any  power  of  a  number  less  than  1,  is  less  than  the 
number  itself. 

140.  Evolution  is  the  process  of  finding  the  roots 
of  numbers. 

141.  The  root  of  a  number  is  one  of  the  equal 
factors  of  that  number. 

142.  The  roots  of  numbers  are  indicated  by  the 
character,  i/9  called  the  radical  sign.     If  no  figure  is 
written  in  the  opening  of  the  sign,  the  square  root 
is  indicated ;  if  the  figure  3  is  place  there,  as  ^, 
the  cube  root ;  if  4,  the  fourth  root ;  and  so  on. 

143.  The  square  root  of  a  number  ia  one  of  the 
two  equal  factors  of  that  number.     The  cube  root 
of  a  number  is  one  of  the  three  equal  factors  of  that 
cumber. 

144.  An  arithmetical  progression  is  a  series  of 
terms  varying  by  a  common  difference.     A  geo- 
metrical progression  is  a  series  of  terms  varying  by 
a  common  multiplier. 

145.  In  arithmetical  progression,  five  things  are 
to  be  considered :  the  first  term,  the  last  term,  the 
number  of  terms,  the  common  difference,  and  the 


86  THE   NORMAL   QUESTION  BOOK. 

sum  of  the  series.     Three  of  these  being  given,  the 
other  two  can  be  founcL 

146.  In  geometrical  progression,  five  things  are 
to  be  considered :  the  first  term,  the  last  term,  the 
number  of  terms,  the  constant  multiplier,  and  the 
sum  of  the  series.     Three  of  these  being  given,  the 
other  two  can  be  found. 

147.  A  duodecimal  is  a  denominate  number  in 
which  twelve  units  of  any  denomination  make  a 
unit  of  the  next  higher  denomination. 

148.  Duodecimals  are  used  by  artificers  in  meas- 
uring surfaces  and  solids. 

149.  Mensuration  is  the  art  of  measuring  magni- 
tudes. 

150.  The  term  magnitude  denotes  that  which  has 
one   or    more   of    the   three    dimensions,   length, 
breadth,  and  thickness, 

151.  In  measuring  surfaces,  it  is  customary  to 
assume  a  square  as  the  measuring  unit,  as  a  square 
inch,  a  square  foot,  a  square  rod,  etc.;  that  is,  a 
square  whose  side  is  a  linear  unit  of  the  same  name. 

152.  By  multiplying  the  length  by  the  breadth. 

153.  By  multiplying  the  length  by  the  altitude. 

154.  By  multiplying  half  the  sum  of  the  parallel 
sides  by  the  altitude. 

155.  By  multiplying  the  base  by  half  the  alti- 
tude0 


ARITHMETIC.  87 

156.  From  half  the  sum  of  the  three  sides  sub- 
tract each  side  respectively ;  then  multiply  together 
half  the  sum  and  the  three  remainders,  and  extract 
the  square  root  of  the  product. 

157.  By  multiplying  the  given  diameter  by  3. 
14159. 

158.  By  dividing   the   given   circumference   by 
3.14159. 

159.  By  multiplying  half  the  circumference  by 
half  the  diameter;  or,  by  multiplying  the  circum- 
ference by  a  fourth  of  the  diameter. 

160.  A  mean  proportional  between  two  numbers 
ie  found  by  multiplying  the  given  numbers  together, 
and  extracting  the  square  root  of  the  product. 

161.  By  multiplying  the  length,  breadth,  and 
thickness  together. 

162.  By  multiplying  the  area  of  the  base  by  the 
height. 

163.  By  multiplying  the  length  by  the  perimeter 
of  the  base. 

164.  By  multiplying  the  area  of  the  base  by  J  of 
the  altitude. 

165.  By  multiplying  the  perimeter  of  the  base  by 
|  the  slant  height. 

1660  By  multiplying  the  area  of  the  base  by  the 
height  or  length. 

167.  By  multiplying  the   circumference   of  the 
base  by  the  height. 

168.  By  multiplying  the  circumference  by  the 
diameter. 


88  THE  NORMAL   QUESTION  BOOK. 

169.  By  multiplying  the  surface  by  J  of  the  di- 
ameter. 

170.  By  extracting  the  square  root  of  the  given 
surface. 


GRAMMAR.  8P 


QUESTIONS  ON  GRAMMAR. 

1.  Define  grammar  as  an  art,  as  an  acquisition, 
as  a  study. 

2.  What  is  English  grammar? 

3.  What  is  the  object  of  studying  grammar? 

4.  What  is  language,  strictly  speaking? 

5.  What  can  you  say  of  the  composition  of  lan- 
guage? 

6.  Under    what    heads    is    English    grammar 
treated  of? 

7.  Define  etymology. 

8.  How  are  words  classified? 

9.  How  are  words  distinguished? 

10.  By  what  general   name   are    the   different 
classes  of  words  called  ? 

11.  Why  are  they  called  parts  of  speech  ? 

12.  Give  a  simple  and  yet  logical  definition  of  a 
noun. 

13.  Give  a  complete  classification  of  the  noun. 

14.  Define  and  illustrate  the  classes  of  the  com- 
mon noun. 

15.  What  may  be  used  as  nouns?    Illustrate. 

16.  What  is  personification?    Illustrate. 

17.  Give   a   rule   for   determining   what    nouns 
should  be  considered  masculine  and  what  feminine. 

18.  When  and  how  are  nouns  made  plural? 


90  THE   NORMAL   QUESTION   BOOK. 

19.  What  can  you  say  of  the  gender  of  collective 
nouns? 

20.  How  are  most  nouns  made  plural? 

21.  Mention  some  nouns  that  are  used  only  in 
the  plural  number;  some  that  are  used  in  the  sin- 
gular number  only ;  and  some  that  have  the  same 
form  for  either  number. 

22.  How  are  most  compound  words  made  plural? 

23.  How  is  a  name  that  begins  with  the  title  Mr., 
Miss,  or  Dr.  made  plural  ? 

24.  What  is  said  of  the  title  Mrs.? 

25.  How  are  letters,  figures,  marks   and  signs 
made  plural  ? 

26.  Define  case. 

27.  Give  an  outline  of  case. 

28.  Give  rules  for  forming  the  possessive. 

29.  What  exception  to  these  rules  ? 

30.  What  is  the  origin  of  the  use  of  the  posses- 
sive sign('s)? 

31.  What  is  enallage  as  used  in  grammar? 

32.  What  is  a  pronoun  ? 

33.  What  does  the  word  pronoun  mean  ? 

34.  For  what  is  a  pronoun  used? 

35.  Into  how  many  general  classes  may  pro&ouns 
be  divided? 

36.  Define  a  personal  pronoLE. 

37.  Into  what  classes  are  the  personal  pronouns 
divided? 

38.  Name  the  simple  personal  pronouns. 

39.  Name  the  compound  personal  pronouns. 

40.  To  which  of  the  pronouns  is  it  customary  to 
apply  gender  ? 


GRAMMAR.  91 

41.  Why  are  not  the  first  and  second  persons 
each  made  always  to  represent  a  different  gender? 

42.  What  is  a  relative  pronoun  ? 

43.  What  classes  have  relative  pronouns? 

44.  Name  the  simple  relative  pronouns. 

45.  Is  "as"  ever  used  as  a  relative  pronoun? 

46.  How  are  who,  which  and  that  used? 

47.  What  can  you  say  of  the  declension  of  rela- 
tive pronouns? 

48.  When  is  which  preferred  to  that? 

49.  When  is  that  preferred  to  which? 

50.  Give  the  peculiar  constructions  of  the  rela- 
tive pronoun  what. 

51.  When  is  what  used? 

52.  What  pronoun  is  used  when  the  antecedent 
is  supplied? 

53.  Give  a  general  rule  for  parsing  the  relative 
pronoun  what. 

54.  How  are  compound  relatives  formed? 

55.  Name  the  compound  relatives. 

56.  Define  an  interrogative  pronoun. 

57.  What  is  the  antecedent  of  a  pronoun? 

58.  What  may  the  antecedent  of  a  pronoun  be? 

59.  What  is  the  subsequent  of  a  pronoun? 

60.  What  is  the  difference  between  the  antece- 
dent and  the  subsequent? 

61.  What  are  the  modifications  of  pronouns? 

62.  Define  an  adjective. 

63.  Into  how  many  classes  may  adjectives  be  di- 
vided? 

64.  What  is  a  descriptive  adjective? 

65.  What  is  a  definitive  adjective? 


92  THE   NORMAL   QUESTION   BOOK. 

66.  Into  what  other  classes  may  adjectives  be  di» 
vided  ? 

67.  Define  a  common  adjective. 

68.  Define  a  proper  adjective. 

69.  Define  a  participial  adjective. 

70.  Define  a  compound  adjective. 

71.  Define  a  numeral  adjective. 

72.  Name  and  define  the  classes  into  which  nu- 
meral adjectives  are  divided. 

73.  Define  these  classes  of  adjectives. 

74.  Define  the  pronominal  adjective. 

75.  What  modifications  have  adjectives? 

76.  To  what  adjectives  is  number  applied? 

77.  What  is  the  comparison  of  an  adjective.? 

78.  Why  is  this  called  comparison  ? 

79.  How  many  and  what  are  the  degrees  of  com- 
parison ? 

80.  Define  the  diminutive  degree  and  tell  how  it 
is  formed. 

81.  Define  the  positive  degree. 

82.  Define  the  comparative  degree  and  tell  how 
it  is  formed. 

83.  Define  the  superlative  degree  and  tell  how  it 
is  formed. 

84.  What  is  comparison  ascending? 

85.  What  is  descending  comparison  ? 

86.  What  is  regular  comparison  ? 

87.  Give  examples  of  irregular  comparison. 

88.  When  are  adjectives  redundant? 

89.  Are  all  adjectives  compared? 

90.  When  monosyllabic  and  polysyllabic  adject' 
ives  come  together  which  are  placed  first  and  how 
are  they  compared  ? 


GRAMMAR.  93 

91.  What  is  an  article? 

92.  What  other  name  is  applied  to  this  part  of 
speech  ? 

93.  Which   is  the   definite  article  and  why  so 
called  ? 

94.  Which  is  the  indefinite  article  and  why  so 
called? 

95.  When  should  A  be  used? 

96.  When  should  An  be  used? 

97.  When  is  no  article  used  ? 

98.  Define  a  verb. 

99.  How  are  verbs  classified? 

100.  Define  a  regular  verb. 

101.  Define  an  irregular  verb. 

102.  Define  a  defective  verb. 

103.  Name  the  defective  verbs. 

104.  Define  a  redundant  verb. 

105.  Give  examples  of  redundant  verbs. 

106.  Define  an  impersonal  verb. 

107.  Define  an  auxiliary  verb. 

108.  Why  are  the  auxiliary  verbs  so  called? 

109.  Name  the  auxiliary  verbs. 

110.  Define  a  principal  verb. 

111.  What  is  a  complete  verb? 

112.  Define  a  transitive  verb. 

113.  Define  an  intransitive  verb. 

114.  What  is  an  active-transitive  verb? 

115.  What  is  an  active-intransitive  verb? 

116.  What  further  can  be  said  in  reference  to 
active-transitive  and  active-intransitive  verbs  it 

117.  What  stands   as   an   answer  to   what?    or 
whom  ?  of  a  transitive  verb  ? 


94  THE  NORMAL    QUESTION   BOOK. 

118.  How  would  you  determine  whether  a  verb 
is  transitive  or  intransitive  ? 

119.  How   many  terms  implied  in  a  transitive 
verb? 

120.  How  many  terms  implied  in  an  intransitive 
verb? 

y  121.  May  some  verbs  be  used  transitively  or  in- 
transitively?   Give  examples. 

122.  "What  is  a  copulative  verb? 

123.  "What  is  the  principal  copula  verb? 

124.  What  is  the   peculiarity   of  these  copula 
verbs? 

125.  How  do  derivative  verbs  form  their  princi- 
pal parts  ? 

126.  What  properties  have  verbs? 

127.  Define  voice. 

128.  Define  the  active  voice. 

129.  Define  the  passive  voice.' 

130.  What  else  can  be  said  of  voice? 

131.  Define  mode. 

132.  Name  the  classes  of  modes. 

133.  What  are  the  finite  modes? 

134.  Name  the  finite  modes. 

135.  Define  the  indicative  mode. 

136.  Define  the  subjunctive  mode. 

137.  What  is  the  difference  between  the  indica- 
tive and  subjunctive  modes? 

138.  What  is  the  explanation  of  these  differences? 

139.  What  are  the  signs  of  the  subjunctive  mode ? 

140.  Define  the  imperative  mode. 

141.  What  is  always  the  subject  of  the  impera- 
tive mode  ? 

142.  Define  the  potential  mode. 


GRAMMAR.  95 

143.  "Why  is  the  potential  mode  so  called? 

144.  What  are  the  infinitive  modes  ? 

145.  Name  the  infinitive  modes. 

146.  Define  the  infinitive  mode. 

147.  The  infinitive  is   usually  accompanied  by 
what  word? 

148.  After  what  words  is  the  sign  omitted? 

149.  How  many  infinitives  are  there? 

150.  What  does  the  present  infinitive  denote? 

151.  Of  what  does  the  present  infinitive  consist? 

152.  What  does  the  perfect  infinitive  represent t 

153.  Of  what  does  the  perfect  infinitive  consist? 

154.  What  constructions  have  infinitives? 

155.  What  is  a  participle  ? 

156.  How  is  the  participle  formed  ? 

157.  How  many  participles  are  there  ? 

158.  What  is  a  simple  participle  ? 

159.  What  is  a  compound  participle? 

160.  What  constructions  have  participles? 

161.  Define  tense. 

162.  How  many  and  what  are  the  tenses? 

163.  Define  the  present  tense. 

164.  Define  the  past  tense. 

165.  Define  the  future  tense. 

166.  Define  the  present-perfect  tense. 

167.  Define  the  past-perfect  tense. 

168.  Define  the  future-perfect  tense. 

169.  By  what  other  names  are  the  tenses  desig- 
nated ? 

170.  How  many  tenses  has  the  indicative  mood? 

171.  How  many  tenses  has  the  subjunctive  mood? 

172.  How  many  tenses  has  the  potential  moodt 

173.  How  many  tenses  has  the  infinitive  mood? 


96  THE   NORMAL   QUESTION   BOOK. 

174.  How  many  tenses  has  the  imperative  mode  i 

175.  What  are  the  forms  of  the  verb  ? 

176.  How  many  forms  have  transitive  verbs  ? 

177.  Name  these  forms. 

178.  How  many  forms  have  intransitive  verbs  ? 

179.  Name  the  forms  of  the  intransitive  verbs. 

180.  Define  the  common  form. 

181.  Give  examples  of  the  common  form. 

182.  Define  the  emphatic  form. 

183.  Give  examples  of  the  emphatic  form. 

184.  In  what  other  way  is  the  emphatic  form 
used? 

185.  Give  examples. 

186.  Define  the  progressive  form. 

187.  Give  examples  of  the  progressive  form. 

188.  When  is  the  progressive  form  used  ? 

189.  How  is  it  formed  ? 

190.  Define  the  passive  form. 

191.  Where  is  the  passive  form  used? 

192.  How  is  it  formed  ? 

193.  Define  the  ancient  form. 

194.  What  other  forms  are  recognized  by  some 
grammarians? 

195.  How  is  the  interrogative  form  made  ? 

196.  How  is  the  interrogative  form  made  in  the 
present  and  past  tenses  ? 

197.  How  is  the  negative  form  made? 

198.  From  what  do  the  compound  forms  resuit? 

199.  What  persons  and  numbers  have  verbs  ? 

200.  What  is  conjugation  ? 

201.  What  is  synopsis? 

202.  What  is  the  inflection  of  a  verb? 
g03.  How  many  conjugations  have  verbs? 


GRAMMAR.  97 

204.  What  verbs  are  of  the  weak  conjugation? 

205.  What  verbs  are  of  the  strong  conjugation? 

206.  What  is  the  theme  of  the  verb? 

207.  What  is  a  paradigm? 

208.  What  is  it  to  make  a  verb? 

209.  What  is  it  to  tell  where  a  verb  is  made? 

210.  Give  an  example. 

211.  What  is  the  root  of  the  verb? 

212.  What  are  the  principal  parts  of  a  verb? 

213.  Why  are  they  so  called? 

214.  Define  an  adverb. 

215.  How  are  adverbs  classified? 

216.  What  is  a  modifying  adverb  ? 

217.  What  is  a  conjunctive  adverb? 

218.  To  what  is  an  adverb  equivalent? 

219.  From  what  are  adverbs  derived? 

220.  What  general  rule  can  be  given  in  reference 
to  the  position  of  the  adverb  ? 

221.  What  modifications  have  adverbs  ? 

222.  Define  a  preposition. 

223.  Into  how  many  classes  are  prepositions  di- 
vided? 

224.  Define  a  simple  preposition. 

225.  Define  a  compound  preposition. 

226.  Define  a  complex  preposition. 

227.  Define  a  conjunction. 

228.  How  are  conjunctions  classified? 

229.  How  are  conjunctions  classified  as  to  rank? 

230.  What  are  co-ordinate  connectives? 

231.  What  are  subordinate  connectives? 

232.  How  are  conjunctions  classified  as  to  signi- 
fication ? 

7 


98  THE  NORMAL   QUESTION   BOOK. 

233.  Define  a  copulative  conjunction. 

234.  Define  a  disjunctive  conjunction. 

235.  Define  an  interjection. 

236.  Define  syntax. 

237.  Define  a  sentence. 

238.  What  does  the  expression  of  a  thought  in* 
yolve? 

239.  What  is  the  subject  of  a  sentence? 

240.  What  is  the  predicate  of  a  sentence? 

241.  How  are  sentences  classified? 

242.  Name  the  sentences  of  the  first  division. 

243.  Define  a  simple  sentence. 

244.  Define  a  complex  sentence. 

245.  Define  a  compound  sentence. 

246.  Define  a  complete  sentence. 

247.  Define  an  abridged  sentence. 

248.  How  are  sentences  classified  as  to  the  nature 
of  the  proposition? 

249.  Define  a  declarative  sentence. 

250.  Define  an  interrogative  sentence. 

251.  Define  an  imperative  sentence. 

252.  Define  an  exclamatory  sentence. 

253.  What  are  the  elements  of  a  sentence? 

254.  Into  what  can  all  sentences  be  resolved? 

255.  What  is  a  proposition  ? 

256.  How  many  parts  has  every  proposition? 

257.  Define  a  clause. 

258.  How  is  a  clause  always  used? 

259.  Define  a  phrase. 

260.  What  is  a  modifier? 

261.  What  is  analysis? 

262.  Define  synthesis. 

263.  Define  ellipsis. 


GRAMMAR.  99 

264.  What  is  parsing? 

265.  What  is  prosody? 

266.  What  is  verse  ? 

267.  How  is  poetry  distinguished  from  prose? 

268.  How  many  kinds  of  verse  are  there? 

269.  Define  rhyme. 

270.  Define  hlank  verse. 

271.  What  is  meant  by  the  quantity  of  a  sylla- 
ble? 

272.  What  is  afoot? 

273.  What  is  a  figure? 

274.  Kame  the  figures  of  grammar. 

275.  What  is  a  figure  of  orthography? 

276.  What  is  a  figure  of  etymology  ? 

277.  What  is  a  figure  of  syntax? 

278.  What  is  a  figure  of  rhetoric? 


100  THE  NORMAL  QUESTION  BOOK. 


ANSWERS  TO  QUESTIONS  ON  GRAMMAR 


1.  Grammar,  as  an  art,  is  the  power  of  reading, 
writing,  and  speaking   correctly.     As  an  acquisi- 
tion, it  is  the  essential  skill  of  scholarship.     As  a 
study,  it  is  the  practical  science  which  teaches  the 
right  use  of  the  language. 

2.  English  grammar  is  the  art  of  speaking  and 
writing  the  English  language,  according  to  estab- 
lished usage. 

3.  The  object  of  studying  grammar  is  to  be 
able  to  understand,  speak,  and  write  a  language 
correctly. 

4.  Language  is  any  method  of  communicating 
thought  of  feeling. 

5.  The  composition  of  language  is  of  two  kinds, 
prose  and  verse. 

6.  English  grammar  is  treated  of  under  four 
heads :  Orthography,  etymology,  syntax,  and  pros- 
ody. 

7.  Etymology  treats  of 

1st.  The  classification  of  words. 
2d.  The  properties  of  words. 


GRAMMAR.  101 

3d.  The  derivation  of  words. 

8.  In  a  discourse,  words  are  (classified)  used — 

(1)  As  names  of  beings,  places,  or  things; 

(2)  As  substitutes  for  names  or  facts ; 

(3)  As  qualifiers  or  limiters  of  names; 

(4)  To  assert  action,  being  or  condition ; 

(5)  To  modify  an  assertion  or  a  quality ; 

(6)  To  express  relations  of  things  or  of  thoughts; 

(7)  To  introduce  or  to  connect  words  and  sen- 
tences ; 

(8)  To  express  a  sudden  or  an  intense  emo- 
tion, or, 

(9)  For  rhetorical  effect. 

9.  By  the  uses — 

Words  are  distinguished  as, 

(1)  Nouns,  (5)  Adverbs, 

(2)  Pronouns,  (6)  Prepositions, 

(3)  Adjectives,  (7)  Conjunctions, 

(4)  Verbs,  (8)  Exclamations,  &a<7 

(9)  Words  of  euphony. 

10.  The  several  kinds,  or  classes  of  words,  arr 
called  by  the  general  name  of  parts  of  speech. 

11.  The  word  parts  means  division,  and  speech 
means  language,  so  that  the  expression,  parts  of 
speech,  means  division  of  language. 

12.  A  noun  is  a  name-word. 


102 


THE   NORMAL   QUESTION   BOOK. 


13.  Nouns. 

Including : 
Colllective, 
Abstract, 
Verbal, 
Diminutive 
Class. 


Properties 

or 
Modificat'ns 


f  Masculine, 

Gender    J  Feminine> 
'  I  Common, 

(^Neuter. 


Person 


(First, 
<  Second, 
Third. 


Case 


C  No  mi  native, 
J  Possessive, 
I  Objective, 

(^Independent 

14.  A  collective  noun  is  a  name,  singular  in  form, 
but  plural  in  meaning;  as,  crowd,  company,  fleet. 

An  abstract  noun  is  the  name  of  a  quality 
considered  apart  from  the  substance  to  which  it 
belongs;  as,  sweetness,  beauty.  Abstract  nouns 
are  derived  from  adjectives. 

A  verbal  noun  is  the  name  of  an  action  or 
state  of  being;  as,  singing,  standing,  seeing. 

A  diminutive  noun  is  one  derived  from  an- 
other noun,  and  expressing  some  object  of  the 
same  kind,  but  smaller;  as,  stream,  streamlet;  hill, 
hillock. 

Class  nouns  are  names  which  can  be  applied  to 
each  individual  of  a  class  or  group  of  objects;  as, 
horse,  apple,  man. 

15.  All  words,  signs,  phrases,  and  sentences  taken 
technically  (that  is,  independently  of  their  mean- 


ing, and  merely  as  things  spoken  of),  are  nouns/ 


GRAMMAR.  10& 

Or,  rather,  are  things  read  and  construed  as  nouns ; 
because,  in  such  a  use,  they  temporarily  assume  the 
syntax  of  nouns.  Adjectives  made  nouns:  "The 
ancient  of  days  did  sit." — Bible.  Pronouns  made 
nouns:  "The  nameless  He,  whose  nod  is  nature's 
birth."—  Young. 

Verbs  made  nouns:  "Avaunt  all  altitude,  and 
stare,  and  start  theatric." — Cowper. 

Participles  made  nouns:  "For  the  crying  of 
the  poor  and  the  sighing  of  the  needy,  I  will  arise." 
—BMe. 

Adverbs  made  nouns :  "  In  these  cases  we  ex- 
amine the  why,  the  what,  and  the  how  of  things." — 
L' 'Estrange. 

Conjunctions  made  nouns:  "Your  if  is  the 
only  peace-maker ;  much  virtue  is  in  your  if.7' — Shak. 

Prepositions  made  nouns;  "0,  not  like  me; 
for  mine's  beyond,  beyond." — Shak. 

Interjections  made  nouns:  "^ith  hark  and 
whoop  and  wild  halloo." — Scott. 

Phrases  made  nouns:  "Towards  the  earth's 
centre  is 'down." 

Sentences  made  nouns :  "  *  We  celebrate  this  day9 
was  printed  on  their  banners." 

Signs  used  as  nouns :  *  is  called  an  asterisk. 

16.  Personification  means  considering  inanimate 
objects  as  persons  endued  with  life ;  as,  we  say  of 
the  earth,  "she   is   fruitful;"  of  the  sun,  "he  has 
risen  in  his  strength ; "  of  time,  "  he  flies  on  rapid 
Wings." 

17.  No  uniform  rule  can  be  given.    In  general, 


104        THE  NORMAL  QUESTION  BOOK. 

however,  nouns  become  masculine  which  indicate 
superior  strength,  energy  and  firmness.  Those,  on 
t<ie  contrary,  are  feminine  which  indicate  delicacy, 
weakness  or  timidity.  Examples  of  those  which 
are  considered  masculine  are,  sun,  time,  death,  etc. 
Examples  of  feminine  are,  moon,  earth,  church, 
nature,  etc. 

18.  When  they  refer  to  a  class  of  the  same  char- 
acter they  are  made  plural  by  adding  s  when  it 
does  not  coalesce  in  sound,  otherwise  es ;  as,  the 
Cherokees;  the  Napoleons;  the  twelve  Caesars. 

19.  When  the  collective  noun  is  used  in  the  plural 
number,  or  when  it  denotes  the  whole  collection  as 
one  thing,  it  is  of  the  neuter  gender;  when  it  is 
used  otherwise,  its  gender  corresponds  with  the 
sex  of  the  individuals  composing  the  collection. 
Ex. — "  Every  generation  has  its  peculiarities."  "  The 
congregation  will  please  to  retain  their  seats," 

20.  Most  nouns  are  made  plural  by  adding  s  to 
the  singular. 

21.  Ashes,  annals,  cattle,  scissors,  suds,  tongs; 
pride,  place,  business,  gold ;  news,  wages,  bellows, 
measles. 

22.  In  compound  words  the  sign  of  the  plural  is 
commonly  added  to  the  important  part;  as,  fathers- 
in-law;  fly-traps ;  courts-martial;  song-queens. 

23.  By  making  plural  the  title  only ;  as,  Mr.  Har- 
per, Messrs.  Harper;  Miss  Brown,  the  Misses  Brown; 
Dr.  Lee,  Drs.  Lee. 

24.  When  the  title  is  Mrs.,  or  when  the  words 


GRAMMAR.  105 

two,  three,  etc.,  stands  before  the  title,  the  latter 
noun  is  made  plural.  "  The  Mrs.  Barlows."  "  The 
two  Miss  Scotts." 

25.  As  follows :     "  Mind  your  p's  and  q's;  the  9's 
and  ll's;  the*'s;  the  +'s;  "those  3's  and  S'a. 

26.  Case  is  that  modification  of  nouns  and  pro- 
nouns which,  by  means  of  form  or  position,  indi- 
cates their  relation  to  other  words,  or  their  inde- 
pendent use. 

27.  Case. 

1.  Nominative. 

1.  Constructions: 

1.  Dependent. 

1.  Subj.  of  finite  verb,' 

2.  In  the  predicate, 

3.  In  apposition  with  a  noun  or  pronoun, 

4.  In  apposition  with  a  sentence. 

2.  Absolute  constructions : 

1.  By  direct  address, 

2.  By  exclamation, 

3.  By  inscription, 

4.  By  pleonasm, 

5.  With  a  participle. 

2.  Possessive. 

1.  Constructions: 

1.  Limiting  noun  of  different  signification, 

2.  Limiting  noun  of  same  signification. 

3.  Objective. 

1.  Constructions : 

1.  Obj.  of  transitive  verb  in  active  voice, 

2.  Obj.  of  a  preposition, 

3.  Sub.  of  an  infinitive, 


106  THE   NORMAL   QUESTION   BOOK. 

4.  In  the  predicate, 

5.  In  apposition, 

6.  By  enallage  for  the  possessive. 

28.  (1)  In  the  singular,  by  adding  an  apostrophe 
and  letter  s  to  the  nominative  form. 

(2)  In  the  plural  (a),  when  nom.  ends  in  s, 
by  adding  only  the  apostrophe. 

(b)  Irregular  plurals  in  the  same  way  as  the 
singular. 

29.  S  is  frequently  omitted,  when  its  addition 
would  occasion  too  many  successive  sounds  of  s. 

30.  It  is  an  abbreviation  of  the  old  English  gen- 
itive, ending  es  or  is;  the  sign    (')  being  called  an 
apostrophe,  because  it  indicates  the  omission  of  the 
e  or  i. 

31.  A  change  of  words,  or  a  substitution  of  one 
gender,  number,  case,  person,  tense,  mode  or  voice 
of  the  same  word,  for  another. 

32.  A  pronoun  is  a  word  used  instead  of  a  noun. 

33.  The  word  pronoun  means  for  a  noun. 


34.  A  pronoun  is  used  to  avoid  the  unpleasant 
repetition  of  a  noun. 

The  common  definition  of  a  pronoun,  that  it 
is  a  "  word  used  instead  of  a  noun,"  is  not  correct. 
A  pronoun  is  simply  a  noun  expressing  its  peculiar 
meaning  as  completely  as  a  noun  of  any  other  class 
expresses  its  own  meaning. 


GRAMMAR.  107 

The  pronoun  takes  the  place  of  the  noun,  not 
merely  to  be  a  substitute  for  it,  or  to  avoid  a  disa- 
greeble  repetition,  but  to  represent  it  in  some  im- 
portant relation. 

35.  Pronouns  may  be  divided  into  four  classes: 
personal,  relative,  interrogative,  and  indefinite. 

36.  A  personal  pronoun  is  a  pronoun  whose  form 
determines  its  person  and  number. 

37.  Personal  pronouns  have  the  sub-classes  sim- 
ple and  compound. 

38.  The  simple  personal  pronouns  are,  I,  thou  or 
you,  he,  she,  it;  and  their  plurals,  we,  ye,  they,  etc. 

39.  The  compound  personal  pronouns,  are,  my- 
self, thyself,  himself,  herself,  itself;  and  their  plu- 
rals, ourselves,  yourselves,  themselves,  etc. 

40.  To  the  third  person  singular,  he,  she,  it. 

41.  The  first  and  second  persons  being  always 
present,  their  genders  are  supposed  to  be  known. 

42.  A  relative  pronoun  is  one  that  may  stand  for 
any  grammatical  person ;  and  connects  clauses ;  as, 
I  who  speak  will  lead  the  way. 

43.  Eelative  pronouns  have  the  sub-classes  sim- 
ple, compound,  and  double. 

44.  Who,  which,  and  that. 


108        THE  NORMAL  QUESTION  BOOK. 

45.  -4s,  by  an  ellipsis  of  the  relative,  after  such, 
many,  or  same,  seems  to  take  its  place,  and  may  be 
regarded  as  a  relative,  though  properly  speaking, 
it  is  never  a  relative. 

46.  (a)    Who  is  used  when  the  antecedent  denotes 
a  person  :     As,  "  the  boy  who  studies/' 


(b)  Which  is  used  when  the  antecedent  de- 
notes a  lower  animal,  or  a  thing  without  life ;  as, 
"the  horse  which  I  saw." 

(c)  That  is  used  in  the  place  of  who  or  which  ; 
"  The  girl  that  we  saw." 

47.  Who  is  varied  in  declension  to  indicate  the 
cases  only.     Which,  that  and  what  are  not  declined. 
But  the  word  whose  is  also  used  as  the  possessive 
of  which. 

Nom.          Pos.  Obj.  Indp. 

Who,         Whose,        "Whom,  Who  or  whom, 

Which,      Whose.        Which,  Which, 

That,  That,  That, 

What.  What.  What. 

48.  Which  is  preferred  to  that  when  it  introduces 
an  explanatory  proposition. 

49.  That  is  generally  preferred  to  which  when  it 
joins  a  restrictive  proposition  to  its  antecedent. 

\    Ex. — "  I  love  the  flag  that  moved  through  the  per- 
ilous fight." 

60.  (a)  What  is  both  a  relative  pronoun  and  a 
limiting  adjective,  and  is  equivalent  as  an  adjective 


GRAMMAR.  109 

to  that  or  those,  as  relative  to  which,  and,  conse- 
quently, has  a  double  construction. 

(b)  The  chief  characteristic  of   the   relative, 
what,  is  its  double  use;    being  equivalent  to  that 
[thing]  which,  all  which,  the  [thing]  which,  or  those 
[things]  which,  etc. 

(c)  What  by  some  authors  is  considered  a 
simple  relative,  by  some  a  double  relative,  and  by 
others  a  compound  relative. 

In  the  majority  of  English  Grammars,  what  is 
classed  as  a  simple  relative,  in  some  as  a  double 
relative,  and  in  a  few  it  is  called  a  compound 
relative  pronoun. 

51.  What  is  used  only  when  the  antecedent  is 
omitted. 

52.  If  the   antecedent  is   supplied,  which  must 
always  be  used. 

53.  What,  when  a  relative,  can  be  changed  into 
that  which,  or  the  thing  which;  as,  "Tell  me  what 
[that  which]  you  know."    That,  or  the  thing,  should 
be  parsed  as  the  antecedent  part  of  what,  and  which 
as  the  relative. 

54.  The  compound  relatives  are  formed  by  ad- 
ding ever,  so,  and  soever  to  the  simple  relatives » 


110  THE   NORMAL   QUESTION  BOOK. 

55.  They  are,  whoever,  whoso,  whosoever,  ivhichsQ* 
ever,  whichever,  whatever,  and  whatsoever. 

56.  An  interrogative  pronoun  is  one  used  for  ask- 
ing a  question,  in  answering  a  question  indefinitely, 
and   in   similar  indefinite   expressions;    as,    who, 
which,  and  what  in  the  following  sentences: 

Question. — Who  did  it?  Which  was  it?  What 
is  truth? 

Indefinite  Answers. — I  know  not  who  did  it. 
Which  it  was.  What  truth  is. 

Indefinite  Expressions. — Find  out  who  did  it. 
Which  it  was.  What  truth  is. 

57.  The  antecedent  of  a  pronoun  is  the  noun,  or 
equivalent  expression,  instead  of  which  the  pro- 
noun is  used. 

58.  The  antecedent  may  be  a  noun,  a  tfrfterent 
pronoun,  a  phrase,  or  a  clause. 

59.  Interrogatives,  or  relatives  of  the  interroga- 
tive kind,  when  they  are  used  in  asking  questions, 
have  no  antecedents,  but  relate  to  some  word  or 
phrase  contained  in  the  answer,  which  is  called  a 
subsequent. 

60.  The  antecedent  and  subsequent  are  opposed 
to  each  other  in  meaning;  the  former  signifying 
going  before,  the  latter  following  after. 

61.  Pronouns  have   the   same   modifications  of 
gender,  person,  number,  and  case,  as  nouns. 

62.  An  adjective  is  a  word  limiting  a  noun  or 
pronoun. 


GRAMMAR.  Ill 

63.  Adjectives  may  be  divided  ID  to  two   chief 
classes,  descriptive  and  definitive. 

64.  A  descriptive  adjective  describes  or  qualifies. 
Ex. — "The  green  forest  glowed  in  golden  light." 

65.  A  definitive  adjective  merely  specifies  or  lim- 
its.    Ex. — There  are  many  wealthy  farmers  in  this 
country. 

66.  Adjectives  may  be  divided  into  several  smaller 
classes;  namely,  common,  proper,  participial,  com- 
pound, numeral,  and  pronominal. 

67.  A  common  adjective  is  any  ordinary  adjec- 
tive that  'expresses  quality  or  circumstance;    as, 
good,  upper,  daily. 

68.  A  proper  adjective  is  an   adjective  derived 
from   a  proper  noun;  as,  French,  American,   Web- 
eterian. 

69.  A  participial  adjective  is  one  that  has  the 
form  of  a  participle,  but  differs  from  it  by  rejecting 
the  idea  of  time ;  as,  an  amusing  story. 

70.  A  compound  adjective  is  one  that  consists  of 
two  or  more  words  joined  together;  as,  nut-brown, 
laughter-loving. 

71.  A  numeral  adjective  is  a  definitive  adjective 
that  expresses  number. 

72.  Numeral   adjectives   are    divided   into    four 
classes;  cardinal,  ordinal, .multiplicative,  and  indef- 
inite. 


112        THE  NORMAL  QUESTION  BOOK. 

73.  (1)  A  cardinal  numeral  tells  how  many ;  as, 
one,  two. 

(2;  An  ordinal  numeral  tells  which  one;  as, 
first,  second. 

(3)  A  multiplicative  numeral  tells  how  many 
fold;  as,  single-,  double. 

(4)  An  indefinite  numeral  expresses  number 
indefinitely ;  as,  few,  many. 

74.  Ans.  No.  1.    Pronominal  adjectives  are  defin* 
itives,  most  of  which  may,  without  an  article  pre- 
fixed, represent  a  noun  understood;  as,  all  men, 
each  soldier. 

Ans.  No.  2.  Pronominal  adjectives  are  defini- 
tive adjectives  that  are  sometimes  used  as*  pronouns. 

Ans.  No.  3.  A  pronominal  adjective  is  a  defin- 
itive word  which  may  either  accompany  its  noun, 
or  represent  it  understood ;  as,  "All  [men]  join  to 
guard  what  each  [man]  desires  to  gain." — Pope. 

75.  Modifications:  Number";  comparison. 

76.  Number  is  applied  to  the  adjectives  this  and 
that;  which  have  the  plurals  these  and  those.     One 
has  its  plurals,  ones,  few,  several,  many;  each  has  its 
plural,  all. 

77.  The  comparison  of  an  adjective  is  a  state- 
ment of  its  different  forms. 

78.  This  is  called  comparison  because  the  object 
of  changing  the  forms  of  adjectives  is  to  express 
comparison. 


GRAMMAR.  113 

79.  Ans.  No.  1.  The  degrees  of  comparison  are 
three,  positive,  comparative,  and  superlative. 

Ans.  No.  2.  There  may  be  four  degrees  of  com- 
parison. 

(1)  Diminutive,  Bluish,          Saltish. 

(2)  Positive,  Blue,  Salt. 

(3)  Comparative,         Bluer,  Salter. 

(4)  Superlative,  Bluest,          Saltest. 

80.  The  diminutive  degree  denotes  an  amount 
of  the  quality  less  than  the  positive.     It  is  com- 
monly formed  by  adding  ish  to  the  form  of  the 
positive.    Ex. — BluisA,  saltish. 

81.  The  positive  degree  expresses  quality  m  its 
simplest  form.    Ex. — Blue,  salt,  large. 

82.  The  comparative  degree  expresses  an  increase 
or  a  decrease  of  the  positive.    It  is   commonly 
formed  by  adding  er,  or  the  words  more  or  less,  to 
the  form    of   the  positive.      Ex. — Larger,   purer, 
richer,  more  common,  less  objectionable. 

83.  The  superlative  degree  expresses  the  greatest 
increase  or  decrease  of  the  quality  of  the  adjective. 
It  is  commonly  formed  by  adding  est,  or  the  words 
most  or  least,  to  the  form  of  the  positive.    Ex. — 
Largest,  most  ungrateful,  uppermost. 

84.  In  ascending  comparison,  the   comparative 
and  superlative  degrees  are  regularly  formed. 

1st.  By  adding  to  the  positive  of 
8 


114  THE   NORMAL    QUESTION  BOOK. 

bles,  r  or  er  for  the  comparative,  and  st  or  est  for 
the  superlative ;  as,  wise,  wiser,  wisest. 

2d.  By  prefixing  to  the  positive  of  adjectives 
of  more  than  one  syllable,  more  for  the  comparative, 
and  most  for  the  superlative;  as,  honorable,  more 
Honorable,  most  honorable. 

85.  In  descending  comparison,  the  comparative 
is  formed  by  prefixing  less,  and  the  superlative  by 
prefixing  least,  to  the  positive;  as,  wise,  less  wise, 
least  wise. 

86.  Regular  comparison  is  made  by  adding  to  the 
positive,  er  for  the  comparative,  and  est  for  the  su- 
perlative.   Ex. — soft,  softer,  softest 

87.  Positive,  good — comparative,  better — super- 
lative, best. 

88.  Some  adjectives  having  more  than  one  super- 
lative are  redundant ;  as,  fore,  former,  foremost  or 
first,  near,  nearer,  nearest  or  next. 

89.  Ans.  No.  1.  Some  adjectives  can  not  be  com- 
pared— the  qualities  they  indicate  not  being  sus- 
ceptible of  increase  or  diminution.     Ex. — Round, 
square,  triangular,  infinite. 

Ans.  No.  2.  It  is  hypercritically  affirmed  by 
most  grammarians  that  such  adjectives  as  round, 
straight,  perfect,  and  complete,  do  not  admit  of 
comparison.  All  usage,  however,  is  against  them. 
It  is  obvious  to  any  one  but  a  grammarian,  that 
more  '  perfect,'  '  more  complete,'  etc.,  are  abbre- 
viated expressions  for  "  more  nearly  perfect,"  etc. 


GRAMMAR.  115 

Ans.  No.  3.  Adjectives  denoting  qualities  which 
can  not  exist  in  different  degrees,  can  not,  with 
propriety,  be  compared — though  some  writers,  not 
taking  them  in  their  full  sense,  often  use  them  in 
the  comparative  and  superlative  degrees.  Ex. — 
Blind,  perfect,  straight.  "  My  sincerest  regards," 
"Our  sight  is  the  most  perfect  of  our  senses." 

• 

Ans.  No.  4»  Adjectives  which  express  a  posi- 
tive or  absolute  degree  of  quality  are  not  compared. 
Such  are  square,  circular,  universal,  etc.  But  ao 
very  few  things  on  earth  come  up  to  an  absolute 
standard,  usage  sanctions  the  giving  to  positive 
terms  a  comparative  meaning.  Thus,  we  say,  "A 
is  more  upright  than  B,"  meaning  that  A  comes 
nearer  to  being  an  upright  man  than  B. 


90.  When  monosyllabic  and  polysyllabic  adjec- 
tives come  together,  the  monosyllables  are  placed 
first,  and  all  are  compared  by  prefixing  more  and 
most;  as,  "the  more  nice  and  elegant  parts." 

91.  An  article  is  the  word  the,  a,  or  aw,  placed 

before  a  noun  to  limit  its  meaning. 

92.  That  of  definitive  adjectives. 

93.  The  is  called  the  definite  article,  because  it 
points  out  some  particular  thing. 


116        THE  NORMAL  QUESTION  BOOK. 

94.  (a)  A  or  an  is  called  the  indefinite  article,  be- 
cause it  does  not  point  out  any  particular  thing. 

(b)  A  and  an  are  both  called  the  indefinite  ar- 
ticle, because  they  are  but  a  later  and  an  earlier 
form  of  the  same  word,  have  the  same  meaning, 
and  differ  in  use  only. 

95.  A  should  be  used  whenever  the  next  word 
begins  with  a  consonant  sound. 

96.  An  should  be  used  whenever  the  next  word 
begins  with  a  vowel  sound. 

97.  No  article  is  used  when  we  refer  chiefly  to 
the  nature  of  the  object,  to  the  class  generally,  or 
to  only  a  part  indefinitely;   also   when   the  sub- 
stantive is  sufficiently  definite  itself,  or  is  rendered 
so  by  other  words. 

98.  A  verb  is  a  word  which  expresses  being,  ac- 
tion, or  state;  as,  I  am;  George  writes;  the  house 
stands. 

99.  Ans.  No.  1.     Verbs  are  divided,  according  to 
their  use,  into  transitive  and  intransitive;  accord- 
ing to  their  form,  into  regular  and  irregular. 

Ans.  No.  2.  With  respect  to  their  use,  verbs 
may  be  divided  into  copulative,  transitive,  and  in- 
transitive. With  respect  to  their  nature,  into  active, 
passive,  neuter.  With  respect  to  their  form,  into 
regular  or  irregular. 

Ans.  No.  3.    Verbs  are  divided  according  to 


GRAMMAR.  117 

the  functions  they  perform,  into,  I.  Complete  verbs. 
II.  Incomplete  verbs. 

Ans.  No.  4.  Verbs  are  divided,  with  respect 
to  their  form,  into  four  classes:  regular,  irregular, 
redundant,  and  defective.  Verbs  are  divided  again, 
with  respect  to  their  signification,  into  four  classes: 
active- transitive,  active-intransitive,  passive  and 
neuter. 

Ans.  No.  5.  Verbs  are  divided,  in  regard  to  tne 
chief  mode  of  combining  them,  into  principal  and 
auxiliary. 

100.  Ans.  No.  1.    A  regular  verb  is  one  in  which 
the  past  tense  and  the  perfect  participle  are  formed 
by  adding  d  or  ed  to  tbe  present. 

Ans.  No.  2.  A  regular  verb  is  one  which 
forms  its  past  indicative  and  past  participle  by  ad- 
ding ed  to  the  present  by  the  rules  of  spelling. 

101.  An  irregular  verb  is  one  which  does  not 
form  its  past  indicative  and  past  participle  by  ad- 
ding ed  to  the  present. 

102.  A  verb  is  said  to  be  defective  wnen  some  ot 
its  parts  are  wanting. 


103.  The   defective  verbs    are    ought,    beware, 
would,  quoth  or  quod,  wit,  wis,  wot,  methinks,  and 

eseems. 

104.  A  redundant  verb  is  a  verb  that  has  more 
Liian  one  form  for  some  of  the  modes  and  tenses. 


: 


118  THE   NORMAL   QUESTION   BOOtf. 

105.  Examples  of  redundant  verbs, — am  or  be— 
break,  broke  or  brake,  broken  or  broke. 

106.  An  impersonal  verb  is  one  by  which  an  ac* 
tion  or  state  is  asserted  independently  of  any  par> 
ticular  subject. 

Ex. — It  rains.     It  snows.     It  thunders. 

107.  Auxiliary  verbs  are  those  by  the  help  of 
which  the  different  modes,  tenses,  numbers,  etc., 
are  formed. 

108.  They  are  so  called,  because  auxiliary  means" 
helping. 

109.  The  auxiliary  verbs  are,  shall,  should,  will, 
would;    may,   might;    can,    could,    (having    two 
tenses);  must,  (with  one  tense);  and  do,  be,  and 
have,  used  in  all  the  tenses, 

110.  A  principal  verb  is  a  verb  that  expresses  by 
itself  the  act  or  state,  or  the  chief  part  of  it. 


111.  A  complete  verb  is  a  verb  that  has  an  ap- 
propriate form  for  all  the  modes  and  tenses.  Ex.— • 
Love,  recite — see — teach. 

112.  A  transitive  verb  receives  or  requires  an  ob* 
ject  to  complete  its  meaning. 

113.  An  intransitive  verb  neither  receives  nor  re* 
quires  an  object  to  complete  its  meaning:. 

114.  An  active-transitive  verb  is  a  verb  that  ex- 


GRAMMAR. 


presses  an  action  ^hich  has  some  person  or  thing 
for  its  object ;  as,  "  Cain  slew  Abel." 

115.  An   active-intransitive  verb  is  a  verb  that 
expresses  an  action  which  has  no  person  or  thing 
for  its  object;  as,  "John  walUs." 

116.  The  subdivision  of  verbs  into  active-transi- 
tive and  active-intransitive  is  not  only  needless,  but 
partial  in  its  application.     The  distinction  is  made 
to  apply  exclusively  to   active   verbs;   whereas  it 
may  apply  as  well  to  neuter  as  to  active  verbs. 

117.  The  object  or  complement  of  the  transitive 
verb  stands  as  an  answer  to  the  question  what?  or 
whom  ?  with  the  verb. 

118.  To  determine  whether  a  verb  is  transitive  or 
intransitive,  we  have  only  to  use  this  test:     Ask 
with  it  the  question  what?  or  whom?  and  if,  in  its 
signification  as  used  in  the  example  in  question,  it 
has,  as  answer,  a  noun  or  a  pronoun,  meaning  a 
different  thing  from  the  subject,  or  if  one  is  obvi- 
ously required  to  complete  the  meaning  intended, 
it  is  transitive ;  otherwise  it  is  intransitive. 

119.  A  transitive  verb  in  a  proposition   neces- 
sarily implies  three  terms — a  subject,  a  predicate, 
and  an  object. 

Ex. — Csesar  (sub.)  crossed  (pred.)  the  Kubicon 
(obj.). 

120.  An  intransitive  verb  requires  but  two  terms: 
a  subject  and  a  predicate;  as,  "  The  tempest  (sub.) 
rages"  (pred.). 

121.  Some  verbs  are,  in  their  nature,  transitive; 


120        THE  NORMAL  QUESTION  BOOK. 

others  are  naturally  intransitive ;  and  some  other* 
are  used  transitively  or  intransitively. 

EXAMPLES  : 

(1)  "Cold  blows  the  wind."    " Blows "  is  in- 
transitive. 

(2)  "The  wind  blows  the  dust."    "Blows"  il 
transitive. 

(3)  "It  has  swept  through  the  earth."    Intran- 
eitive. 

(4)  "  Jane  has  swept  the  floor."    Transitive. 

(5)  "God  moves  in  a  mysterious  way."    In- 
transitive. 

(6)  "  Such  influences  do  not  move  me."  Trans- 
itive. 

122.  Am.  No.  1.  A  copulative  verb  is  used  to  as- 
sert the  predicate  of  a  proposition  of  the  subject ; 
as,  "  Sugar  is  sweet." 

Ana.  No.  2.  Incomplete  veros  that  require  as 
complement  a  word  (adjective,  noun,  or  pronoun) 
relating  to  their  subject  are  called  neuter  or  copula 
verbs. 

123.  The  principal  copula  verb  is  the  verb  to  oe. 
Other  verbs  belonging  to  this  class  are,  become, 
seem,  appear,  grow,  feel,  look,  smell,  taste. 

124.  A  peculiarity  of  these  copula  verbs  is  that 
each  implies  in  its  meaning  the  verb  to  be.     Thus 
*  become '  is  really  to  come  to  be ;  '  appear '  is  to  be 
in  appearance. 


GRAMMAR.  121 

125.  A  derivative  verb  generally  forms  its  prin- 
cipal parts  in  the  same  way  as  the  primitive  verb. 

Ex. — Mistake,  mistook,  mistaken;  undergo,  un- 
derwent, undergone. 

126.  To  verbs  belong  voice,  mode,  tense,  num* 
ber,  and  person. 

127.  Ans.  No.  1.  Voice  is  a  property  of  transitive 
verbs  founded  on  the  relation  of  the  subject  to  the 
action. 

Ans.  No.  £.  Voice  is  that  modification  of  the  verb 
which  shows  the  relation  between  the  verb  and  its 
subject. 

128.  The  active  voice  represents  the  subject  as 
acting. 

129.  The  passive  voice  represents  the  subject  as 
acted  upon. 

130.  Ans.  No.  1.  Voice  is  a  property  that  belong^ 
to  transitive  verbs  only. 

-4ns.  No.  2.  All  intransitive  verbs  are  in  the 
active  voice  because  they  have  the  form  of  verbs 
whose  subjects  act. 

131.  Mode  is  that  modification  of  the  verb  which 
indicates  the  manner  or  condition  of  the  assertion. 

132.  Modes  are  of  two  classes,  finite  an  infinite. 

133.  The  finite  modes  are  those  which  are  finited 
or  limited  by  person  and  number. 


122  THE  NORMAL   QUESTION  BOOK. 

134.  The  finite  modes  are  the  indicative,  poten- 
tial, subjunctive,  and  imperative.* 

135.  The   indicative  mode  is  used  to  declare  8 
thing  as  a  fact  or  to  ask  a  question  ;  as,  "  he  loves." 
"Does  he  love?" 

X"  136.  The  subjunctive  mode  represents  a  thing 
not  as  a  fact,  but  as  simply  conceived  in  the  mind ; 
as,  "  if  I  were  a  king." 

137.  The  only  difference  between  the  subjunctive 
mode  and  the  indicative  mode  is  in  the  third  per- 
son singular  of  the  two  tenses,  the  present  and  the 
present  perfect.     Thus: 

Indicative  present :  (If  though,  etc.)  he  loves. 

Subjunctive  present:  (If,  though,  etc.)  he  love. 

Indicative  pres.  perfect:  (If  or  though)  he  has 
loved. 

Subjunctive  pres.  perfect:  (If  or  though)  heAare 
loved. 

138.  The  explanation  of  these  differences  is,  that 
in  what  is  called  the  subjunctive  mode  there  is  an 
auxiliary  left  out — either  the  word  will,  or  the  words 
may,  can,  should. 

139.  The  subjunctive  is  used,  for  the  most  part,  in 
propositions  expressing  a  condition  or  a  supposi- 
tion, after  the  conjunctions,  if,  unless,  except,  though, 

*  It  may  be  well  to  state  that  all  grammarians  do  not  agree 
with  this  classification.  Some  authorities,  as  Butler,  for  instance, 
do  not  recognize  the  potential  mode ;  others  ignore  the  subjunct 
ive,  etc.  The  classification  given  is,  however,  the  one  most  gen- 
erally  accepted. 


GRAMMAR.  123 

whether,  lest,  and  until.     It  is  DOW  rarely  used,  the 
forms  of  the  indicative  having  taken  its  place. 

140.  The  imperative  mode  is  used  in  command- 
ing, exhorting,  or  entreating;  as,  "  Children,  obey 
jour  parents."     "Always  tell  the  truth."     "Save 
jne,  Hubert !     Save  me ! " 

141.  The  imperative  is  now  used  only  in  the  sec- 
ond person,  singular  and  plural,  and  the  subject  is 
generally  omitted,  as  it  is  always  the  pronoun  you, 
and   the   person   addressed  is   sufficiently  known 
without  expressing  it. 

142.  The  potential  mode  denotes  power,  possibil- 
ity, liberty,  obligation  and  determination. 

143.  This  is  so  called,  because  potential  means 
able,  having  power. 

144.  The  infinite  modes  are  those  which  have  no 
limitation  of  person  and  number. 

145.  They  are  ordinarily  called  infinitives  and 
participles. 

146.  Def.  No.  1.  The  infinitive  mode  is  that  form 
of  the  verb  which  is  not  limited  to  a  subject,  or 
which  has  no  subject;  as,  "to  write." 

Def.  No.  2.  The  infinitive  is  a  verbal  noun,  and 
expresses  the  action  of  the  verb  simply,  without 
reference  to  any  subject.  "  To  play." 

Def.  No.  3.  A  verb  used  without  limitation  by 
a  subject,  is  in  the  infinitive  mode.  • 


L 


124        THE  NORMAL  QUESTION  BOOK. 

Def.  No.  4.  The  infinitive  mode  is  the  name  of 
the  action,  unlimited  (from  Latin  in,  not,  and  finis, 
a  limit)  by  number  or  person.  It  is  generally  pre- 
ceded by  the  sign  to,  but  not  always;  as,  I  like  to 
sing;  we  saw  him  run.  The  infinitive  is  really  a 
noun.^ 

Def.  No.  5.  The  infinitive  mode  expresses  the 
action,  being,  or  state,  without  affirming  it ;  as,  to 
write. 

Def.  No.  6.  An  infinitive  is  a  form  of  the  verb 
that  generally  begins  with  to,  and  that  expresses 
the  act  or  state  without  predicating  it. 

Def.  No.  7.  The  infinitive  represents  the  action 
or  state  as  an  abstract  noun. 

Def.  No.  8.  The  infinitive  mode  partakes  of 
the  nature  of  the  verb  and  of  that  of  the  noun. 

Def.  No,  9.  The  infinitive  is  a  form  of  the  verb 
which  names  the  action  or  being  in  a  general  way, 
without  asserting  it  of  anything. 

Def.  No.  10.  The  infinitive  mode  is  that  form 
of  the  verb  which  is  used  to  express  an  action,  a 
being,  or  a  state,  which  is  not  limited  to  a  subject. 

Def.  No.  11.  The  infinitive  mode  is  used  to  ex- 
press an  action  not  limited  either  by  person  or 
number. 


GRAMMA*.  125 

Def.  No.  18.  Verbs  have  another  substantive 
form  besides  that  in  ing.  This  form  is  usually  pre- 
ceded by  the  preposition  to,  and  is  called  the  infini- 
tive of  the  verb. 

Def.  No,  13.  The  infinitive  mode  expresses  an 
action  or  state  not  limited  to  a  subject. 

Def.  No.  14.  The  infinitive  mode  is  used  to  ex- 
press an  action  or  a  state  of  being  in  a  general  and 
unlimited  manner. 

Def.  No.  15.  The  infinitive  mode  is  that  form 
of  the  verb  which  expresses  the  being,  action,  or 
passion,  in  an  unlimited  manner,  and  without  per- 
son and  number. 

Def.  No.  16.  Participles  and  infinitives  are  as- 
suming verbal  words.  They  may  be  used  as  nouns, 
as  adjectives  and  as  adverbs. 

147.  To  is  called  the  sign  of  the  infinitive. 


t 


148.  After  the  active  voice  of  the  verbs  bid,  make, 
need,  let,  feel  and  dare;  after  let  in  the  passive,  and 
after  some  other  words,  to  is  omitted. 

149.  There  are  two  infinitives — the  present  and 
the  perfect. 

150.  The  .present  infinitive  denotes,  simply  the 
act  or  state. 

151.  The  present  infinitive  consists  of  to,  com- 
bined with  the  simplest  form  of  the  verb ;  or  of  to 


126  NORMAL   QUESTION  BOOK. 

be,  with  a  simple  participle.     Ex. — To  write,  to  be 
writing,  to  be  written. 

152.  The  perfect  infinitive  represents  the  act  or 
state  as  completed  at  the  time  referred  to. 

153.  The  perfect  infinitive  consists  of  to  have,  or 
to  have  been,  combined  with  a  single  participle. 

154.  Infinitives  and  participles  have  the  construc- 
tion of  nouns,  adjectives,  or  adverbs. 

155.  Def.  No.  1.  A  participle  is  a  word  derived 
from  a  verb,  partaking  of  the  properties  of  a  verb 
and  of  an  adjective  or  a  noun. 

Def.  No.  2.  Participles  are  verbal  adjectives 
which  as  verbs  may  require  an  object,  and  as  ad- 
jectives may  qualify  nouns. 

Def.  No.  3.  A  participle  is  a  word  derived  from 
a  verb,  retaining  the  signification  of  its  verb,  while 
it  also  performs  the  office  of  some  other  "  part  of 
speech.'1 

Def.  No.  4-  A  participle  is  that  form  of  the 
verb  which  partakes  of  the  nature  both  of  a  verb 
and  of  an  adjective. 

Def.  No.  5.  A  participle  is  a  word  having  the 
signification  of  a  verb,  but  the  construction  of  an 
adjective. 

Def.  No.  6.  The  participle  is  a  verbal  adjective, 
limiting  a  noun,  or  forming  part  of  the  predicate 
of  a  proposition. 


GRAMMAR.  127 

Def.  No.  7.  A  participle  is  a  form  of  the  verb 
that  expresses  the  act  or  state  without  predicating 
it,  and  generally  .resembles  an  adjective. 

Def.  No.  8.  The  participle  partakes  of  the  na- 
ture of  the  verb  and  of  that  of  the  adjective. 

Def.  No.  9.  Participle  is  a  word  derived  from 
a  verb,  participating  the  properties  of  a  verb,  and 
of  an  adjective  or  noun. 

Def.  No.  10.  A  participle  is  a  form  of  the  verb 
that  generally  qualifies  or  limits  the  meaning  of  a 
substantive,  by  assuming  some  action  or  state  in 
connection  with  it. 

156.  The  participle  is  generally  formed  by  adding 
ing,  d,  or,  ed,  to  the  verb :  thus,  from  the  verb  rule, 
are  formed  three  participles,  two  simple  and  one 
compound ;  as,  1,  ruling ;  2,  ruled ;  3,  having,  ruled. 

157.  Ans.  No.  1.  There  are  three  participles ;  the 
present,  the  perfect,  and  the  compound  perfect. 

Ans.  No.  2.  There  are  two  participles;  the 
present  and  the  perfect,  each  of  which  is  either 
simple  or  compound. 

Ans.  No.  3.  There  are,  properly,  two  partici- 
ples, the  present  and  the  perfect. 


128        THE  NORMAL  QUESTION  BOOK. 

Ans.  No.  4.  Participles  are  distinguished  as 

1.  Present, 

2.  Prior  present, 
.3.  Past. 

Ans.  No.  5.  There  are  three  participles:  the 
present,  the  perfect,  and  the  compound. 

Ans.  No.  6.  There  are  two  participles — the 
present  or  incomplete  participle,  as,  walking,  draw- 
ing ;  and  the  past,  or  complete  participle,  as,  walked, 
drawn. 

Ans.  No.  7.  English  verbs  have  severally  three 
participles — the  first,  or  imperfect ;  the  second,  or 
perfect;  and  the  third,  or  preperfect. 

Ans.  No.  8.  Transitive  verbs  have  six  partici- 
ples ;  namely,  three  active  and  three  passive.  They 
are  called,  present  active,  past  active,  perfect  active, 
present  passive,  past  passive,  and  perfect  passive. 
Intransitive  verbs  have  only  three  participles ; 
namely,  present  active,  past  active,  and  perfect 
active. 

158.  A  simple  participle  is  a  single  word  derived 
from  its  verb. 

159.  A  compound  participle  consists  of  a  simple 
participle,  with  the  auxiliary  participles  having,  or 
being,  or  having  been. 

160.  The  participle  may  have  the  construction  of 
a  noun,  adjective,  or  adverb,  in  addition  to  its  ver- 
bal force,  that  of  assuming  action,  being,  or  a  state 
of  being. 


GRAMMAR.  129 

161.  Tense  is  that  attribute  of  a  verb  by  which 
it  expresses  distinctions  of  time. 

162.  There  are  six  tenses;  the  present,  the  past, 
and  the  future ;  the  present-perfect,  the  past-per- 
fect, and  the  future-perfect. 

163.  The  present  tense  is  that  form  of  the  verb 
which  denotes  simply  present  time. 

164.  The  past  tense  is  that  form  of  the  verb  which 
denotes  simply  past  time. 

165.  The  future  tense  is  that  form  of  the  verb 
which  denotes  simply  future  time. 

166.  The  present-perfect  tense  is  that  form  of 
the  verb  which  denotes  what  is  past  and  finished, 
but  which  is  connected  also  with  the  present  time. 

167.  The  past-perfect  tense  is  that  form  of  the 
verb  which  denotes  what  was  past  and  finished,  be- 
fore some  other  event  which  is  also  past. 

168.  The  future-perfect  tense  is  that  form  of  the 
verb  which  denotes  a  future  time  prior  to  some 
other  time  which  is  itself  future. 

169.  Ans.  No.  1.  The  prior  past  tense,  the  past 
tense,  the  prior  present  tense,  the  present  tense,  the 
prior  future  tense,  the  future  tense. 

Ans.  No.  2.  The  present,  the  imperfect,  the 
perfect,  the  pluperfect,  the  first-future  and  the  sec- 
ond-future. 

170.  The  indicative  mode  has  all  the  six  tenses. 
9 


130        THE  NORMAL  QUESTION  BOOK. 

171.  Ans.  No.  1.  The  subjunctive  has  two  tenses: 
the  present  and  past. 

Ans.  No.  2.  The   subjunctive  mode  has  three 
tenses — the  present,  past,  and  past-perfect. 

Ans.  No.  3.    The   subjunctive   mode   has   six 
tenses — the  same  as  the  indicative. 

172.  The  potential  mode  has  four  tenses — the 
present,  the  past,  the  present-perfect,  and  the  past- 
perfect. 

173.  The  infinitive  mode   has  two  tenses — the 
present,  and  the  present  perfect. 

174.  The  imperative  mode  has  but  one  tense — 
the  present. 

175.  The    forms   of   the  verb  are    its    various 
changes  to  express  the  time  and  state  of  an  act  in 
the  several  modes  and  tenses. 

176.  Transitive  verbs  may  have  four  forms.  • 

177.  The  common,  the  emphatic,  the  progressive, 
and  the  passive. 

178.  Intransitive  verbs  may  have  three  forms. 

179.  The  common,  the  emphatic,  and  the  pro- 
gressive. 

180.  The  common  (indefinite)  form  represents  an 
act  indefinitely,  as  a  custom,  or  as  completed,  with- 
out reference  to  its  progress. 

181.  Examples  of  the  common  form — I  love;  I 
loved;  I  shall  love;  I  have  loved. 


GRAMMAR.  131 

182.  The  emphatic  form  represents  an  act  with 
emphasis. 

183.  Examples  of  the  emphatic  form — I  do  write; 
I  did  write. 

184.  The  emphatic  form  is  used  in  interrogative 
or  negative  sentences  without  emphasis. 

185.  Ex. — Do  you  write?    Did  you  write?    I  do 
write. 

186.  The  progressive  form  is  used  to  denote  ao- 
tion  or  state  in  progress. 

187.  Ex. — "I  am  writing;"  "He  had  been  sing- 
ing." 

188.  The  progressive  form  may  be  used  in  all  the 
modes  and  tenses. 

189.  The  progressive  form  is  formed  by  prefixing 
the  various  modes  and  tenses  of  the  neuter  verb  to 
be  to  the  present  participle  of  the  principal  verb. 

190.  The  passive  form  denotes  the  reception  of- 
an  act  by  its  subject;  as,  "I  am  struck." 

191.  The  passive  form  is  used  in  all  the  modes 
and  tenses. 

192.  The  passive  form  is  formed  by  prefixing  the 
various  modes  and  tenses  of  the  neuter  verb  to  be 
to  the  perfect  participle  of  the  principal  verb. 

193.  The  ancient  form,  or  solemn  style,  is  used 
in  the  Bible,  in  religious  worship,  and  sometimes 
in  poetry  and  burlesque;  as,  "  Thou  art  the  man. 


132  THE  NORMAL   QUESTION  BOOK. 

194.  The  interrogative  and  negative  forms. 

195.  The  interrogative  form  is  made  by  placing 
the  subject  after  the  first  helping  verb;    as,  " Hav6 
you  seen  my  book?" 

196.  The  present  and   past  tenses   are  usually 
made  from  the  emphatic  form;  as,  "Z)o  you  heaf 
the  alarm?" 

197.  The  negative  form  of  a  verb  is  made  by 
placing  not  after  the  first  helping  verb;  as,  "  He 
has  not  come." 

198.  Compound  forms  result  from  the  formation 
of  interrogative  and  negative  and  from  the  pro- 
gressive and  passive  forms. 

199.  Verbs  have  three  persons — the  first,  the  sec- 
ond, and  the  third;   and  two  numbers — the  singu- 
lar and  the  plural.     These  correspond  to  the  per- 
son and  the  number  of  the  subject. 

200.  Conjugation  is  the  regular  arrangement  of 
all  the  forms  of  the  verb. 

-  201.  Synopsis  is  the  regular  arrangement  of  the 
forms  of  one  number  and  person  in  all  the  modes 
And  tenses. 

202.  The  inflection  of  a  verb  is  called  its  conju- 
gation. 

203.  The  verb  has  two  conjugations,  the  weak 
and  the  strong. 

204.  There  are  two  methods  of  forming  the  past 
tense  of  verbs.     Most  verbs  form  it  by  adding  d  or 
ed  to  the  theme ;  as, 

Theme :  move,  live,,  form. 


GRAMMAR.  133 

Past  tense :  moved,  lived,  formed. 

The  past  participle  of  all  such  verbs  has  the 
same  form  as  the  past  tense. 

Such  verbs  are  of  the  weak  or  regular  conju- 
gation. 

205.  Some  verbs — mostly  of  one  syllable,  and  all 
of  Anglo-Saxon  origin — form  their  past  tense  by 
changing  the  vowel  sound  of  the  theme,  and  form 
their  past  participle  by  adding  n  or  en  to  the  theme, 
or  to  the  past  tense ;  as, 

Theme:  draw,  grow,  ride. 

Past  tense:  drew,  grew,  rode. 

The  past  participle  of  such  verbs  generally  endi 
in  n  or  en. 

Such  verbs  are  of  the  strong  or  irregular  con- 
jugation. 

206.  The  theme  of  the  verb  is  that  form  which 
admits  the  preposition  to  before  it ;  as,  to  have,  to 
see.     This  form  is  called  the  infinitive,  or  unlimited 
form,  and  is  generally  a  substantive. 

207.  A  word  given  as  a  model  by  which  to  inflect 
other  words  is  called  a  paradigm. 

208.  To  make  a  verb  in  grammar,  means  to  put 
it  into  any  required  form. 

209.  To  tell  where  a  verb  is  made,  is  to  name  the 
tense,  mode,  form,  voice,  number,  and  person  of 
the  verb,  if  these  can  be  known  by  the  verb  itself. 
If  all  these  facts  can  not  be  known,  name  as  many 
as  possible. 

210.  Ex. — Where  is  may  be  going  made  ?    In  the 
present  potential,  progressive  form,  active  voice. 


134        THE  NORMAL  QUESTION  BOOK. 

211.  The  present  infinitive  active  without  its  sign 
to,  is  the  root  of  the  verb. 

212.  The  principal  parts  of  a  verb  are :  I.  Pres- 
ent indicative;  II.  Past  indicative;   III.  Past  par- 
ticiple. 

/    213.  These  are  called  principal  parts,  because 
from  them  all  other  forms  of  the  verb  are  made. 

214.  Adverbs  are  words  used  to  limit  the  appli- 
cation of  verbs,  participles,  infinitives,  adjectives, 
adverbs,  prepositions  and  propositions. 

215.  Adverbs  are  classified,  according  to  the  ideas 
they  express,  into  those  of: 

Manner;  as,  well,  beautifully,  quickly. 
Time ;  as,  now,  to-day,  to-morrow,  soon. 
Place ;  as,  where,  here,  there,  near. 
Cause ;  as,  why,  therefore. 
Degree  or  quality ;  as,  very,  exceedingly,  terri- 
bly, much,  less. 

Number;  as,  once,  twice. 

Order;  as,  first,  last,  finally. 

Affirmation ;  as,  truly,  yes,  certainly. 

Negation;  as,  no,  not,  not  at  all. 

Doubt;  as,  perhaps,  possibly. 

Direction ;  as,  downward,  inward,  upward. 

216.  A  modifying  adverb  is  one   which   limits 
words  or  phrases  without  having  any  connecting 
power. 

217.  A  conjunctive  adverb  is  one  which  intro- 


GRAMMAR.  135 

duces  a  subordinate  sentence  and  modifies  its  verb; 
as,  we  will  know  the  truth  when  he  returns. 

218.  An  adverb  is  equivalent  to  a  preposition 
and  its  object  limited  by  the  adjective  from  which 
the  adverb  comes,  or  by  some  other  adjective  of 
like  meaning. 

Ex. — "  He  acts  wisely."    He  acts  in  a  wise  man- 
ner. 

219.  (1)  Adverbs  of  manner  are  mostly  derived 
from  adjectives  by  adding  ly ;  as,  wise,  wisely. 

(2)  Some  adverbs  are  identical  in  form  with 
the  adjective ;  as,  more  beautiful. 

(3)  Some  adverbs  are  formed  from  nouns;  as, 
daily,  hourly. 

220.  An  adverb  should  be  placed  in  close  prox- 
imity to  the  word  or  words  that  it  modifies. 

221.  Adverbs  have  no  modifications,  except  that 
a  few  are  compared  after  the  manner  of  adjectives; 
as,  soon,  sooner,  soonest.     Some  are  compared  irreg- 
ularly ;  as,  well,  better,  best. 

222.  A  preposition  is  a  word  placed  before  a  noun 
or  pronoun  to  show  its  relation  to  some  other  word. 

223.  Prepositions  are  divided  into  three  classes- 
simple,  compound,  and  complex. 

224.  A  simple  preposition   is  a  preposition  con- 
sisting of  a  single  word. 


136  THE  NORMAL   QUESTION  BOOK. 

225.  Compound  means  compounded  of  two  prep* 
ositions ;  as,  out  of,  from  between,  etc. 

226.  Complex  refers  to  prepositions  compounded 
of  a  preposition  and  some  other  part  or  parts  of 
speech ;  as,  on  account  of,  to  the  extent  of,  etc. 

227.  A  conjunction  is  a  word  whose  office  it  is  to 
connect  words,  phrases,  clauses,  and  sentences. 

228.  Conjunctions  are  classified  on   two  bases; 
first,  as  to  rank ;  second,  as  to  signification. 

229.  As  to  rank,  conjunctions  are  coordinate  and 
subordinate. 

230.  Coordinate    connectives    are   those   which 
join  similar  or  homogeneous  elements. 

231.  Subordinate,  connectives   are   those   which 
join  dissimilar  or  heterogeneous  elements. 

232.  As  to  signification,  conjunctions  are  copula- 
»tive  and  disjunctive. 

233.  A  copulative  conjunction  simply   conneeta 
the  meaning  of  phrases  or  sentences;  as,  the  moon 
ehines  and  the  wind  blows. 

234.  A  disjunctive  conjunction  connects  words, 
phrases,  or  sentences,  yet  indicates  alternative,  ad- 
versative, or  antithetic  meaning ;  as,  he  will  go  or 
stay;  the  shop    was   burned,   but  the  house    was 
saved. 


GRAMMAR.  137 

235.  An  interjection  is  a  word  that  is  uttered 
merely  to  indicate  some  strong  or  sudden  emotion 
of  the  mind ;  as,  Oh !  alas ! 

236.  Syntax  treats  of  the   construction  of  sen- 
tences, 

237.  A   sentence  is   a   complete   expression  of 
thought  by  means  of  words. 

238.  The   expression   of  a  thought  involves  at 
least  three  things : 

(1)  Some  subject  of  thought. 

(2)  Some  idea  which  is  connected  with  the 
subject. 

(3)  Some  word  which  expresses  the  connection 
of  the  first  and  second  ideas. 

239.  The  subject  is  the  name  of  the  thing  spoken 
of. 

240.  The  predicate  is  the  word  or  words  used 
with  the  subject  in  making  the  statement. 

241.  Sentences  are  classified  as  to  structure  and 
as  to  the  nature  of  the  proposition. 

242.  Simple,  complete,  abridged,  complex,  prin. 
cipal,  compound,   partial   compound,  subordinate 
leading  and  coordinate. 


243.  A  simple  sentence  is  one  which  contains  but 
one  subject  and  one  finite  verb ;  as,  "  Life  is  short." 


138        THE  NORMAL  QUESTION  BOOK. 

244.  A  complex  sentence  is  one  which  contains 
a  simple  sentence,  with  one  or  more  clauses  modi- 
fying either  its  subject  or  its  verb ;  as,  "A  life  which 
is  spent  in  doing  good  can  not  be  a  failure." 

245.  A  compound  sentence  is  one  which  contains 
two  or  more  sentences,  whether  simple  or  complex, 
connected  by  one  or  more  conjunctions;  as,  "Life 
is  short,  but  art  is  long." 

246.  A  complete  sentence  is  one  whose  verb  is 
finite. 

247.  An  abridged  sentence  is  one  whose  verb  is 
in  the  infinitive  or  participial  mode. 

248.  As  to  the  nature  of  the  proposition  sentences 
are  declarative,  imperative  and  interrogative. 

249.  A  declarative  sentence  is  one  that  declares 
something;  as,  "  The  'wind  blows." 

250.  An  interrogative  sentence  is  one  that  asks 
a  question ;  as,  "  Does  the  wind  blow  ?  " 

251.  An  imperative  sentence  is  one  that  expresses 
a  command,  an  exhortation,  an  entreaty,  or  per- 
mission, and   contains   a  verb   in  the  imperative 
mode;  as,  "Let the  wind  blow." 

252.  An  exclamatory   sentence  is  one  that  ex- 
claims something;  as,  "How  the  wind  blows J" 


GRAMMAR.  139 

253.  The  elements  of  sentences  are  words,  phrases, 
and  clauses. 

254.  All  sentences  can  be  resolved  into  proposi- 
tions or  clauses. 

255.  A  proposition  is  a  subject  combined  with  its 
predicate. 

256.  Every  proposition  must  have  at  least  two 
principal  parts;  a  subject- nominative   and  a  pre- 
dicate-verb. 

257.  A  clause  contains  the  elements  of  a  sen- 
tence but  does  not  make  complete  sense. 

258.  It  is  always  used  as  a  modifier. 

259.  A  phrase  is  any  number  of  related  words  in 
proper  order,  not  forming  a  sentence  or  a  clause. 

260.  A  modifier  is  a  dependent  word,  phrase  or 
clause,  added  to  some  other  word  or  expression,  to 
limit  or  vary  the  meaning. 

261.  Analysis  in  grammar  is  the  separation  of 
sentences  into  the  parts  which  compose  them. 

262.  Synthesis  is  the  construction  or  formation 
of  sentences  from  words. 

263.  Ellipsis  is  the   omission   of  one   or  more 
words,  phrases,  or  clauses  necessary  to  complete 
the  sense  and  construction  of  a  sentence;  as,  "He 
loves  play  better  than  (he  loves)  study." 

264.  Parsing  is  verbal  analysis ;  the  naming  of 


140        THE  NORMAL  QUESTION  BOOK. 

the  several  parts  of  speech,  with  the  relation  which 
each  word  has  in  the  sentence. 

265.  Prosody  is  that  part  of   grammar  which 
treats  of  the  quantity  of  syllables,  of  feet,  and  the 
modes  in  which  they  are  combined  in  verse. 

266.  Verse  is  language  so  arranged  in  lines  that 
syllables  of  a  certain  length  may  occur  at  certain 
intervals. 

267.  Verse  is  the  form  in  which  poetry  generally 
appears.     Poetry  is  distinguished  from  prose  not 
only  by  this  form,  but  by  its  containing  more  fig- 
ures,  as  well  as  peculiar  words  and  expressions. 

268.  There  are  two  kinds  of  verse,  rhyme,  and 
blank  verse. 

269.  Rhyme  is  that  kind  of  verse  in  which  there 
is  a  correspondence  of  sound  in  the  last  syllables 
of  two  or  more  lines. 

270.  Blank  verse  is  metrical  language  without 
rhyme. 

271.  By  the  quantity  of  a  syllable  is  meant  the 
time  required  for  its  utterance. 

272.  A  foot  is  two  or  more  syllables,  constituting 
a  portion  of  a  line. 

273.  A  figure  in  grammar,  is  an  intentional  de- 
viation from  the  ordinary  spelling,  formation,  con- 
struction, or  application  of  words. 

274.  There  are  figures  of  orthography,  figures  of 
etymology,  figures  of  syntax,  and  figures  of  rhetoric. 


GRAMMAR.  14f 

275.  A  figure  of  orthography  is  an  intentional 
deviation  from  the  ordinary  or  true  spelling  of  a 
word. 

276.  A  figure  of  etymology  is  an  intentional  de- 
viation from  the  ordinary  formation  of  a  word. 

277.  A  figure  of  syntax  is  an  intentional  devia- 
tion from  the  ordinary  construction  of  words. 

278.  A  figure  of  rhetoric  is  an  intentional  devia- 
tion from  the  ordinary  application  of  words. 


THE  NORMAL   QUESTION  BOOlC 


gUESTIONS  ON  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 


1.  What  is  history  ? 

2.  What  are  the  divisions  of  history? 

3.  Define  ancient  history. 

4.  Define  modern  history. 

5.  What  is  civil  history  ? 

6.  What  is  sacred  history  ? 

7.  What  is  profane  history  ? 

8.  For  what  is  ancient  history  distinguished  ? 

9.  For  what  is  modern  history  distinguished? 

10.  What  can  be  said  of  the  first  inhabitants  of 
America? 

11.  What  race  of  people  followed  the  Mound 
Builders? 

12.  Why  were  they  so  named  ? 

13.  Describe  the  Indian. 

14.  Who  first  suggested  the  idea  of  the  rotundity 
of  the  earth?  Who  confirmed  it?  Who  resolved  to 
prove  it? 

15.  What  was  the  great  and  exciting  problem  of 
the  fifteenth  century  ? 

16.  Who  had  excited  the  people  of  Europe  abou* 
the  Indies? 

17.  Why  did  Columbus  wish  to  sail  to  India? 


UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  143 

18.  Give  some  account  of  Coltimbus's  trials  and 
his  final  success. 

19.  How  many  voyages  did  Columbus  make,  and 
what  lands  did  he  discover  in  each  voyage? 

20.  What  further  can  be  said  of  Columbus? 

21.  Give  an  idea  of  the  character  of  Columbus. 

22.  Give  an  account  of  his  burial. 

23.  Why  was  this  country  called  America? 

24.  How  many  and  what  nations  took  an  active 
part  in  exploring  North  America? 

25.  Name  the  most  important  Spanish  discover- 
ers and  explorers. 

26.  Give  an  account  of  De  Leon's  discoveries. 

27.  What  did  Balboa  discover? 

28.  Who  discovered  Mexico? 

29.  Give  an  account  of  De  Ayllon. 

80.  What  became  of  Ue  Ayllon's  effort  to  kidnap 
the  natives? 

31.  What  was  the  result  of  De  Ayllon's  second 
kidnapping  expedition? 

32.  Give  an  account  of  Magellan's  explorations. 

33.  What  of  De  Soto  and  his  explorations? 

34.  Who  was  Melendez? 

35.  What  was  the  real  object  of  the  expedition 
of  Melendez? 

36.  Where  did  Melendez  land  and  what  did  he 
do? 

37.  What  did  Melendez  next  proceed  to  do? 

38.  Give  a  summary  of  Spanish  explorations. 

39.  Name  the  most  important  French  discover- 
ers. 

40.  Give  an  account  of  the  explorations  of  Ver- 
razzani. 


144  THE   NORMAL   QUESTION  BOOK. 

41.  What  did  James  Cartier  discover? 

42.  Name  the  most  important  English  discover- 
ers and  explorers. 

43.  Give  an  account  of  the  discovery  of  the  Cab- 
ots. 

44.  This  discovery  was  previous  to  what  other 
important  discoveries? 

45.  Give  an  account  of  the  first  attempt  of  th« 
English  to  colonize  America. 

46.  What  did  Sir  Walter  Ealeigh  do? 

47.  Where  was  the  first  white  child  of  English 
parents  born  in  America  ? 

48.  What  was  her  name  ? 

49.  What  did  Raleigh  call  the  lands  he  explored! 

50.  What  did  Gosnold  explore? 

51.  Give  an  account  of  the  Dutch  explorations  in 
America. 

52.  In  what  year  did  he  make  these  discoveries  ? 

53.  What  was  the  Spanish  claim  in  America? 

54.  Upon  whose  expedition  was  it  based? 

55.  What  was  the  French  claim  ? 

56.  What  was  the  English  claim? 

57.  Upon  what  was  the  English  claim  based  ? 

58.  How  far  westward  did  these  claims  extend  ? 

59.  By  what  right  did  Spain  claim  the  Pacific 
Coast? 

60.  What  was  the  Dutch  claim? 

61.  During  what  period  in  the  world's  history 
did  these  discoveries  and  explorations  take  place? 

62.  What  were  the  only  permanent  settlements 
at  the  close  of  the  sixteenth  century? 

63.  Name  five  of  the  first  permanent  settlements 


UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.          145 

made  in  the  New  World,  at  the  beginning  of  the 
seventeenth  century. 

64.  What  inducements  led  Europeans  to  come  to 
America? 

65.  What  important  event  transpired  April  10, 
1606? 

66.  What  was  the  London  company? 

67.  What  territory   was  granted  to  this   com- 
pany? 

68.  Of  whom  was  the  Plymouth  company  com- 
posed ? 

69.  What  right  was  granted  to  this  company  ? 

70.  What  settlement  did  the  London  company 
make? 

71.  What  special  importance  is  attached  to  this 
settlement? 

72.  What  was  the  character  of  the  Virginia  col- 
onists? 

73.  What  was  their  success? 

74.  What  distinguished  man  was  among  the  first 
settlers  ? 

75.  What  did  John  Smith  do  for  the  colony? 

76.  What  great  story  is  told  of  John  Smith? 

77.  When  and  where  was  the  first  legislative  as- 
sembly ever  held  in  America? 

78.  When  was  slavery  first  introduced  into  the 
colonies? 

79.  When  were  the  Navigation  Acts  passed? 

80.  What  was  the  purpose  of  these  acts? 

81.  Explain  the  system  of  these  acts. 

82.  What  was  the  effect  of  these  laws  ? 

83.  What  took  place  in  1676? 
10 


146  THE  NORMAL   QUESTION  BOOK. 

84.  What  was  the  cause  of  Bacon's  rebellion? 

85.  "What  happened  during  this  rebellion? 

86.  Where  was  the  first  permanent  New  England 
settlement  made? 

87.  How  did  the  New  England  states  get  their 
name? 

88.  When  and  by  whom  was  Connecticut  settled  ? 

89.  Where  did  they  commence  their  first  settle- 
ments ? 

90.  By  whom  was  Rhode  Island  settled  ? 

91.  By  whom  was  the  first  settlement  in   New 
Hampshire  made  ? 

92.  Who  made  the  first  settlement  in  Maine? 

93.  From  what   did  the   early  colonies  greatly 
suffer? 

94.  What  conduct  and  outrages  led  to  the  atti- 
tude of  the  Indians  toward  the  colonists? 

95.  What  missionary  heroes  worked  among  the 
Indians  ? 

96.  What  may  be  said  of  the  colonists  with  re- 
gard to  education? 

97.  When  was  Harvard  University  founded  ? 

98.  When  and   where  was  William    and    Mary 
College  founded  ? 

99.  When  was  Yale  College  founded? 

100.  When  was  Dartmouth  College  founded? 
,101.  By  whom  was  New  York  settled? 

102.  Where  did  they  commence  their  settlement? 

103.  What  took  place  in  the  year  1664? 

104.  Name  the  Dutch  governors  of  New  York  in 
the  order  of  their  reign. 

105.  By  whom  was  Delaware  settled  ? 


UNITED   STATES   HISTORY.  147 

106.  Where  did  they  commence  their  first  settle- 
ment? 

107.  What  transpired  in  a  few  years  after  their 
settlement  ? 

108.  By  whom  was  Maryland  settled  ? 

109.  Why  did  they  leave  England? 

110.  Where  did  they  land? 

111.  Give  an  account  of  the  government  of  Lord 
Baltimore. 

112.  To  whom  does  the  honor  of  having  first  es- 
tablished religious  freedom  in  America  belong? 

113.  By  whom  was  Pennsylvania  settled? 

114.  When  did  they  arrive  in  this  country? 

115.  Where  did  they  commence  a  settlement? 

116.  What  can  be  said  of  William  Penn's  behav- 
ior to  the  Indians  ? 

117.  Explain  what  is  meant  by  Mason  and  Dix- 
on's  line. 

118.  By  whom  was  North  Carolina  settled? 

119.  Where  did  they  commence  a  settlement? 

120.  When  was  South  Carolina  settled? 

121.  What  was  introduced  into  this  country  in 
the  year  1700  ? 

122.  When  and  by  whom  was  Georgia  settled  ? 

123.  Why  was  it  called  Georgia? 

124.  From  what  nation  were  the  great  mass  of 
the  settlers  of  the  U.  S.? 

125.  What  other  nations  were  represented? 

126.  Where   were   these   different    nationalities 
found  in  the  colonies  ? 

127.  In  what  were  the  settlers  of  New  England 
engaged  ? 


148        THE  NORMAL  QUESTION  BOOK. 

128.  In   what   were   the  settlers  of  the  Middle 
States  engaged? 

129.  In  what  were  the  settlers  of  Virginia  and 
Maryland  engaged? 

130.  In  what  were  the  settlers  of  Carolina  and 
Georgia  engaged  ? 

131.  What  was  the  most  commercial  colony? 

132.  What  was  the  most  commercial  town? 

133.  Why  had  Virginia  no  large  towns? 

134.  How  was  trade  carried  on  ? 

135.  What  was  used  instead  of  currency  ? 

136.  In  what  money  were  accounts  kept? 

137.  When  was  the  Federal  currency  adopted? 

138.  State  something  of  the  manners  and  cus- 
toms of  the  early  settlers. 

139.  What  religious  beliefs  existed  in  the  colo- 
nies? 

140.  Give  an  account  of  the  religious  persecu- 
tions. 

141.  Under  what  dominion  were  the  colonies? 

142.  What  kinds  of  government  were  there? 

143.  Describe  the  commercial  corporation. 

144.  Describe  proprietary  government. 

145.  Give  examples  of  proprietary  government. 

146.  Describe  royal  government. 

147.  Give  examples  of  royal  government. 

148.  Describe  charter  government. 

149.  Describe  voluntary  association. 

150.  Name  two  strange  delusions  in  colonial  his- 
tory. 

151.  When  was  the  printing  press  introduced 
into  America? 

152.  Who  was  the  first  American  editor? 


UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  149 

153.  Who  were  the  founders  of  American  liter- 
ature? 

154.  What  part  had  the  pulpit  to  do  in  the  edu- 
cation of  the  colonial  tira'es? 

155.  When  were  post-offices  first  established  in 
the  colonies? 

156.  What  great  men  did  the  colonial  times  pro- 
duce? 

157.  What  was  the  population  of  the  colonies  at 
the  close  of  the  colonial  period? 

158.  Name  the  inter-colonial  wars. 

159.  What  was  the  cause  of  King  William's  war? 

160.  When  did  the  war  begin  and  when  did  it 
close  ? 

161.  What  was  the  cause  of  Queen  Anne's  war? 

162.  Give  the  dates  of  this  war. 

163.  By  what  treaty  was  it  ended?    What  was 
the  result  of  the  war? 

164.  What  was  the  cause  of  King  George's  war? 

165.  What  was  the  principal  event  in  America? 

166.  Give  the  dates  of  this  war. 

167.  What  was  the  result  of  this  war? 

168.  What  was  the  cause  of  the  French  and  In- 
dian war? 

169.  Between  what  nations  was  the  war  fought? 

170.  What  was  this  war  called  in  Europe? 

171.  Name  the  principal  events  of  this  war. 

172.  Who  were  the   principal   commanders  in 
this  war? 

173.  Give  the  dates  of  this  war. 

1 74.  What  were  the  terms  of  the  treaty  ? 

175.  W^at  were  the  causes  of  the  Revolutionary 
War? 


150  THE   NORMAL    QUESTION  BOOK. 

176.  What  were  the  writs  of  assistance  ? 

177.  What  was  the  stamp  act  ? 

178.  When  was  the  Boston  port  bill  passed  ? 

179.  What  was  the  mutiny  act? 

180.  When  and  where  was  the  first  colonial  con- 
gress held  ? 

181.  When    was   the   first   continental  congress 
held  ? 

182.  Of  what  did  it  consist? 

183.  What  did  this  congress  do  ? 

184.  Who  were  the  officers  of  this  congress  ? 

185.  What  parties   existed   in   America   at  the 
breaking  out  of  the  Revolution  ? 

186.  Give  an  account  of  the  second  continental 
congress. 

187.  For  what  is  the  4th  of  July,  1776,  memora- 
ble? 

188.  Who  wrote  the  Declaration  of  Independence? 

189.  What  famous  foreigners  assisted  the  Ameri- 
cans in  the  Revolution. 

190.  When    were    "The     Stars     and    Stripes" 
adopted  as  the  emblem  of  our  nationality? 

191.  Give  an  account  of  the  treason  of  Benedict 
Arnold. 

192.  Name  the  most  important  battles    of  the 
Revolution,  with  dates,  results  and  commanders. 

193.  When  was  the  treaty  of  peace  concluded  ? 

194.  What  were  the  terms  of  the  treaty  ? 

195.  What  important  measure  was  adopted  by 
Congress  in  1777  ? 

196.  What  were  the  defects  in  the  articles  of 
confederation  ? 


UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.          151 

197.  "When  was  the  Constitution  of  the  United 
States  adopted? 

198.  What  two  political  parties  were  in  existence 
at  this  time  ? 

199.  What  were  the  principles  of  these  two  par- 
ties? 

200.  Who  were  the  leaders  of  these  parties  ? 

201.  Name  the  different  places  where  the  Con- 
tinental Congress  met. 

202.  When  did  the  first  trouble  arise  in  reference 
to  slavery  ? 

203.  What  did  each  section  claim? 

204.  What  compromise  was  effected  ? 

205.  Who  exercised  this  power? 

206.  Who  was  chosen  first  president  of  the  Uni- 
ted States?     When  and  by  whom? 

207.  Name  the  most  important  events  of  Wash- 
ington's administration. 

208.  Give  the  history  of  the  seats  of  our  govern- 
ment. 

209.  Give  a  short  history  of  the  District  of  Co- 
lumbia. 

210.  Who  was  chosen  president  after  Washing- 
ton? 

211.  What  do  you  know  about  him  ? 

212.  Name  the  most  important  events  of  Adams's 
administration. 

213.  Define  the  text  of  the  Alien  and  Sedition 
laws. 

214.  Give  an  account  of  the  presidential  election 
of  1800. 

215.  What   do   you   know   of  the  character  of 
Thomas  Jefferson  ? 


152        THE  NORMAL  QUESTION  BOOK. 

216.  What  were  the  important  events  of  Jeffer- 
son's administration  ? 

217.  Give  an  account  of  the  election  of  James 
Madison. 

218.  What  were  the  principal  events  of  Madison's 
administration  ? 

219.  Give  a  brief  account  of  the  Indian  war. 

220.  What  was  the  cause  of  the  war  in  1812  ? 

221.  What  were  the  principal   engagements  of 
this  war? 

222.  When  and  where  was  the  treaty  of  peace 
made? 

223.  What  is  said  of  this  treaty? 

224.  Give  an  account  of  the  next  presidential 
election. 

225.  Name  the  important  events  of  Monroe's  ad- 
ministration. 

226.  Define  the  Monroe  Doctrine. 

227.  What  was  the  Missouri  Compromise  ? 

228.  Give  a  sketch  of  the  two  great  parties  now 
in  power. 

229.  Who  were  the  champions  of  these  parties? 

230.  What  was  the  result  of  the  election  of  1824  ? 

231.  What  were  the  events  of  John  Quincy  Ad- 
ams's administration? 

232.  What  of  the  presidential  election  of  1828? 

233.  What  were  the  important  events  of  Jack- 
ton's  administration? 

234.  What  can  you  say  of  the  presidential  elec- 
tion of  1836? 

235.  What  were  the  events  of  Van  Buren's  ad- 
ministration ? 

286.  Who  was  elected  President  in  1840  ? 


UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.          153 

237.  What  was  the  meaning  of  the  election? 
203.  Give  an  account  of  the  death  of  President 
Harrison. 

239.  Who  then  became  President? 

240.  Name  the  events  of  these  administrations. 

241.  What  was  the  issue  of  the  campaign  of  1844? 

242.  Who  was  elected  President? 

243.  What  was  the  cause  of  the  war  with  Mex- 
ico? 

244.  Name  four  or  five  of  the  principal  battles 
of  this  war. 

245.  What  is  there  remarkable  about  the  battles 
of  this  war? 

246.  Who  were  the  most  noted  commanders  on 
both  sides? 

257.  What  treaty  formally  ended  the  Mexican 
war? 

248.  State  the  territory  ceded  by  this  treaty  to 
the  United  States. 

249.  What  other  events  transpired  during  Polk's 
administration  ? 

250.  What  was  the  Wilmot  Proviso? 

251.  Who  were  candidates  for  the  presidency  in 
the  election  of  1848? 

252.  What  were  the  principles  of  the  Free-soil- 
ers? 

253.  Who  was  elected? 

254.  When  did  Taylor  die? 

255.  Who  then  became  President? 

256.  What  were  the  events  of  this  administra- 
tion? 

257.  Give  an  account  of  the  admittance  of  Cali- 
fornia into  the  Union. 


154  THE   NORMAL   QUESTION   BOOK. 

258.  What    compromise    measure   passed   Con* 
gress  ? 

259.  What  were  the  provisions  of  the  Omnibus 
Bill? 

260.  What  was  the  question  at  issue  in  the  cam- 
paign of  1852  ? 

261.  Who  were  the  candidates? 
'    262.  Who  was  elected  ? 

263.  What  were  the  events  of  this  administration? 

264.  What  was  the  Gadsden  purchase  ? 

265.  What  was  the  Kansas-Nebraska  Bill? 

266.  What  was  this  doctrine  called? 

267.  What  was  the  result  of  this  bill? 

268.  When  did  it  become  a  law? 

269.  What  did  it  bring  about? 

270.  What  new   party   came   into   existence  in 
1853? 

271.  What  were  the  principles  of  this  party? 

272.  What  new  party  was  organized  out  of  the 
Free-soilers  ? 

273.  What  principle  did  the  Democrats  advocate? 

274.  What  candidates  were  put  in  the  field? 

275.  What  were  the  events  of  Buchanan's  ad- 
ministration ? 

276.  What  was  the  "Dred-Scott"  decision? 

277.  Into  how  many  parties  were  the  people  di- 
vided in  1860,  and  who  was  elected  president? 

278.  What  immediate  effect  did  the  election  have 
in  South  Carolina? 

279.  What  other   States   followed   the   Iea4  of 
South  Carolina? 

280.  Give  a  sketch  of  the  formation  of  the  new 
government. 


UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.          155 

281.  What  may  be  given  as  the  causes  of  the 
civil  war  ? 

282.  What  was  the  policy  of  Abraham  Lincoln  ? 

283.  When  and  where  was  the  first  gun  of  the 
rebellion  fired  ? 

284.  What  was  remarkable  about  this  contest? 

285.  When  and  where  was  the  first  blood  shed? 

286.  What  can  you  say  of  the  flags  of  the  two 
nations? 

287.  Name  the  states  that  formed  the  Southern 
Confederacy. 

288.  Name  some  of  the  most  important  battles 
won  by  the  confederates. 

289.  Name  some  of  the  most  important  battles 
won  by  the  federals. 

290.  Name  the   hard   fought  battles  in   which 
neither  army  was  successful. 

291.  What  virtually  closed  the  civil  war? 

292.  What  occurred  five  days  after  Lee's  sur> 
render? 

293.  Who  now  became  president? 

294.  What  political  questions  came  up  for  con* 
sideration  ? 

295.  What    important   events   occurred    during 
Johnson's  administration  ? 

296.  What  was  the  cost  of  the  war? 

297.  Who  was  the  next  president? 

298.  Name  the  most  important  events  of  Grant's 
administration. 

299.  Name  the  events  of  Grant's  second  adminis- 
tration. 

800.  Who  was  elected  president  in  1876? 


156  THE   NORMAL   QUESTION  BOOK. 

301.  Mention  the  events  of  Hayes's  adminis- 
tration. 

302.  Was   President    Hayes's  administration 
favorable  to  his  party  ? 

303.  Who  were  the  nominees  for  the  Presi- 
dency to  succeed  President  Hayes  ? 

304.  When  was  Gfarfield  inaugurated  Presi- 
dent? 

305.  What   gigantic    swindling    system    was 
detected  in  the  Post  Office  Department  ? 

306.  When   was    President    Garfield   assassi- 
nated ? 

307.  When   did    Chester  A.   Arthur   become 
President  of  the  United  States  ? 

308.  What  is  the  Civil  Service  Act,  and  when 
was  it  passed  ? 

309.  When  was  letter  postage  reduced  from 
three  cents  to  two  cents  ? 

310.  How  was  Alaska  recognized  as  a  Territory  \ 

311.  How  was  Chinese  immigration  regulated  ? 

312.  Who  were  nominated  for  President  in 
1884? 

313.  Who  was  elected  ? 

314.  What  notable  events  occurred  in  1886  ? 

315.  What    important    commercial    act    was 
passed  by  Congress  in  January,  1887  ? 

316.  What  bill  originated  in  the  Senate  in  re- 
gard to  the  Canadian  fishery  question  ? 

317.  What  was  the  result  of  the  election  of  1888  ? 

318.  In  February,  1889,  what  important  office 
was  added  to  the  Cabinet  ? 

319.  What  legislation  in  the  same  month  was 
of  special  interest  to  the  people  of  the  Northwest  ? 


UNITED   STATES   HISTORY.  156(2 

320.  What  interesting  anniversary  occurred  in 
1889? 

321.  How  near  to  the  verge  of  war  did  the 
United  States  come  during  Harrison's  adminis- 
tration ? 

322.  What  important  tariff  and  silver  legisla- 
tion was  enacted  in  1890  ? 

323.  What  were  the  effects  of  the  "  McKinley 
Law"? 

324.  What  was  the  result  of  the  election  of 
1892? 

325.  What    event    of    international   interest 
marked  the  year  1893  ? 

326.  Did  any  exceptional  political  occurrences 
mark  this  year  ? 

327.  What   important  question  engaged  the 
attention  of  the  Congress  and  the   people   in 
1894? 

328.  What  occurrences  in  the  labor  field  ex- 
cited general  anxiety  in  1894  ? 

329.  What  great  question  was  brought  most 
prominently  to  the  attention  of  the  people  in 
1895-96  ? 

330.  What  was  the  result  of  the  general  elec- 
tion of  1896  ? 

331.  What  was  the  first  important  act  during 
the  McKinley  administration  ? 

332.  Did  either  house  of  Congress  do  anything 
else  of  note  at  the  extra  session  ? 

333.  Was  this  the  only  treaty  of  consequence 
before  the  Senate  of  that  session  ? 

334.  How  did  its  failure  affect  Hawaiian  an- 
nexation ? 


156&        THE  NORMAL  QUESTION  BOOK. 

335.  What  noteworthy  event  for  New  York 
occurred  in  1897  ? 

336.  What  important  general  legislation  was 
enacted  by  the  Fifty-fifth  Congress  at  its  winter 
session  of  1897-98  ? 

337.  How  long  did  the  war  with  Spain  last  ? 

338.  What  were  the  principal  battles  in  this 
war? 

339.  What  other  exhibitions  of  American  hero- 
ism distinguished  this  war  ? 

340.  What  brought  about  this  war  ? 

341.  What  were  the  principal  terms    of  the 
peace  protocol ? 

342.  Who  were  appointed    to   represent  the 
United  States  in  the  peace  conference,  and  where 
did  the  conference  hold  its  sessions  ? 

343.  What  was  the  character  of  the  War  Kev- 
enue  Act  ? 

344.  What  did  the  treaty  of  peace  provide  ? 

345.  When  was  peace  formally  declared  ? 

346.  What  dramatic  coincidence  attended  the 
vote  of  the  United  States  Senate  for  the  ratifica- 
tion of  the  treaty  ? 

347.  Has  the  United  States  any  other  foreign 
complications  on  hand  at  present  ? 

MISCELLANEOUS   QUESTIONS. 

302.  Name  the  presidents  who  served  two  terms. 

303.  Name  the  presidents  who  died  "in  office. 

304.  What  administrations  were  troubled  with 
Wars  ? 

305.  What  presidents  did  the  Federal  party  elect  ? 


UNITED   STATES   HISTOBYV  157 


306.  The  Old  Republican  party? 

307.  The  Democratic  party? 

308.  The  New  Republican  party? 

309.  What  presidents  were  elected  without  op- 
position ? 

310.  Name  some  of  our  most  eminent  inventors. 

311.  Who  was  our  most  eminent  literary,  politi- 
cal and  scientific  writer  ? 

312.  Name  our  distinguished  metaphysicia»- 

313.  Our  lexicographers. 

314.  Name  our  mathematicians. 

315.  Our  naturalists. 

316.  Our  novelists. 

317.  Our  historians. 

318.  Our  poets. 

319.  Our  journalists. 

320.  Our  sculptors. 

321.  Our  painters. 

322.  Our  orators. 

323.  What    territory  belonged    to    the   United 
States  when  it  began  its  existence  as  a  nation? 

324.  What  country  was  organized  as  the  North- 
west Territory? 

325.  What  States  have  been  carved  out  of  this 
territory  ? 

326.  What  was  the  Southwest  Territory  ? 

327.  What  States  have  been  formed  from  it? 

328.  Was  Maine  one  of  the  thirteen  original 
States  ? 

329.  What  States  and  Territories  have  been 
formed  out  of  the  Louisiana  purchase  \ 

330.  Give  the  early  history  of  Texas. 

331.  From  what  comes  the  real  glory  of  a  nation? 


158        THE  NORMAL  QUESTION  BOOK. 


ANSWERS  TO  QUESTIONS  ON  U.  S.  HISTORY. 


1.  The  word  history  is  of  Greek  origin,  signify. 
ing  in  that  language  a  learning  or  knowing  by  in- 
quiry, and  in  English  a  record  of  past  events. 

2.  History  is  divided  into  ancient  and  modern  ; 
which  is  also  divided  in  civil,  sacred  and  profane. 

3.  Ancient  history  is  an  account  of  all  events 
that  have  taken  place  from  the  creation  of  the 
world  to  the  birth  of  Christ. 

4.  Modern  history  embraces  an  account  of  all 
events  from  the  birth  of  Christ  until  the  present 
time. 

5.  Civil  history  is  an  account  of  the  rise,  con- 
tinuance, and  fall  of  empires,  kingdoms,  and  states. 

6.  Sacred  history  is  that  which  is  contained  in 
the  Sacred  Scriptures. 

7.  Profane  history  is  properly  the  history  of 
fabulous  gods,  and  heroes  of  antiquity. 

8.  Ancient  history  is  distinguished  for  the  rise 
and  fall  of  the  four  great  empires  :  Assyria,  Persia, 
Greece  and  Rome. 

9.  Modern  history  is  distinguished  for  the  in- 


UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.          159 

vention  of  gunpowder,  the  art  of  printing,  and  the 
discovery  of  America. 

10.  The  first   inhabitants  of   America   are    un- 
known.    The  name  given  them  is  Mound-Builders, 
owing  to  the  great  mounds  and  earth-works  to  be 
found  in  different  parts  of  the  country,  of  which 
the  Indians  have  no  traditions. 

11.  The  Indians. 

12.  Columbus  named  them  "  Indians,"  because 
he  thought  the  island  he  had  found  was  a  part  of 
India,  or  Eastern  Asia. 

13.  The  Indian  is  tall,  straight  and  well  propor- 
tioned.    His  skin  is  of  a  copper  brown;  his  hair 
long,  black  and  coarse.     They  were  uncivilized, 
had  no  written  books,  no  well  organized  society, 
or  arts,  or   manufactures,   or   agriculture.     They 
lived  mainly  by  hunting  and  fishing,  and  cultiva- 
ting patches  of  Indian  corn,  beans,  potatoes  and 
melons.     Their  great  delight  was  in  war  and  the 
chase.     They  lived  in  rude  huts  called  wigwams, 
and  their  dress  was  the  skin  of  wild  beasts. 

The  arts  of  the  whites  greatly  injured  them. 
The  guns  which  they  got  from  the  whites  only 
made  them  reckless  in  their  destruction  of  game, 
and  rendered  their  petty  wars  more  frequent  and 
more  bloody.  The  rum  of  the  white  man  turned 
them  into  brutes. 

The  cottons  and  calicoes  which  they  learned  to 
use  in  place  of  their  own  furs  and  deer-skins, 
caused  sickness  and  consumption. 


160  THE   NORMAL   QUESTION   BOOK. 

14.  Toscanelli,  Sir  John  Maudeville,  Ohristophet 
Columbus. 


15.  The  great  problem  of  the  fifteenth  century 
was  to  find  a  near  route  to  India. 

16.  Marco  Polo,  a  Venetian,  had  traveled  to  the 
east,  and  returned  with  wonderful  accounts  of  the 
riches  of  Cathay  and  the  Islands  of  Cipango,  called, 
generally,  the  East  Indies,  and  now  known  to  be 
China  and  Japan. 

17.  Since  the  route  at  that  time  to  this  rich  coun- 
try of  spices,  silks,  pearls  and  gold  was  overland 
by  caravans,  dangerous  and  expensive,  Columbus 
thought  it  would  be  a  great  thing  if  he  could  go  to 
India  all  the  way  by  sea.     Columbus  was  also  a 
deeply  religious  man,  and   he   longed   greatly  to 
bring  the  unknown  barbarous  nations  of  the  far 
East  to  a  knowledge  of  the  Christian  faith. 


18.  Columbus  being  too  poor  to  fit  out  an  expe^ 
dition  himself,  first  applied  to  his  own  countrymen 
for  aid,  and  then  to  the  king  of  Portugal.  He  next 
jturned  to  Spain,  and  in  the  meantime  sent  his 
brother  to  England,  but  these  people  had  no  time 
to  listen  to  a  poor  sailor  at  whom  everybody 
laughed,  and  the  children  mocked  him  as  he  passed 
in  the  streets.  Success  came  at  last.  Eighteen 
years  had  now  passed  since  he  conceived  his  great 
design,  seven  of  which  were  spent  waiting  for  the 
answer  of  Ferdinand.  Saddened  by  his  continual 


UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.          161 

failures,  he  was  leaving  Spain,  begging  a  little  food 
at  convent  doors,  and  resolving  to  apply  to  the 
king  of  France.  At  a  lonely  mountain  pass  he  was 
overtaken  by  a  messenger  from  the  queen,  Isabella, 
asking  him  to  return  to  the  capital. 

Urged  by  a  desire  to  spread  tbe  Catholic  faith 
throughout  the  world,  and  to  see  Spain  the  mistress 
of  lands  in  Asia,  the  queen  had  changed  her  mind. 
To  the  cold  objections  of  Ferdinand  she  nobly  an- 
swered, "  I  undertake  the  enterprise  for  my  crown 
of  Castile,  and  will  pledge  my  jewels  to  raise  the 
necessary  funds." 

19.  Four.  In  his  first  voyage  Columbus  discov- 
ered Guanahani,  to  which  he  gave  the  name  of  San 
Salvador — the  Spanish  words  for  Holy  Savior.     In 
his  second  voyage  he  discoverd  the  Winward  Isles, 
Jamaica  and  Porto  Rico.     In  his  third  voyage  he 
discovered  the  Island  of  Trinidad,  and  the  mainland 
of  South  America,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Orinoco. 
In  his  fourth  voyage  he  visited  the  places  which  he 
had  previously  discovered,  and  made  some  explo- 
rations along  the  south  side  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 

20.  Columbus  never  dreamed  that  he  had  discov- 
ered a  new  continent,  and  died  supposing  that  ha 
had  opened  a  new  route  to  Asia.     His  later  years 
were  saddened  by  persecution  and  neglect,  and  he 
died  in  poverty  and  obscurity,  at  Valladolid,  Spain, 
May  20, 1506,  in  the  seventy-first  year  of  his  age. 

21.  Columbus  was  a  man  of  commanding  pres- 
11 


162        THE  NORMAL  QUESTION  BOOK. 

ence.  In  character  he  was  one  of  the  greatest  soula 
that  ever  lived.  He  was  a  man  of  lofty  intellect, 
of  wonderful  enthusiasm,  and  of  a  deep  religious 
nature. 

22.  His  remains  were  carried  to  Seville;  after- 
ward they  were    removed  to   San  Domingo,  in 
1796  to  the  cathedral  at  Havana,  and  in  1899  to 
Spain. 

23.  The  country  was  called  America  from  Amer- 
icus  Vespucius,  who  sailed  to  the  new  world  on  a 
voyage  of  discovery  after  Columbus  had  reached 
the  continent ;  Americus  explored  still  farther  the 
new  regions,  and  on  his  return  to  Spain,  published 
an  account  of  his  discovery,  and  the   country  in 
consequence  received  from  him  the  name  of  Amer- 
ica. 

24.  The  four  powers  which  took  an  active  part 
in  exploring  North  America  were  Spain,  England, 
France  and  Holland. 

25.  Columbus,  Vespucci,  De  Leon,  Balboa,  Gri- 
jalvah,  De  Ayllon,  De  Narvaez,  Magellan,  De  Soto, 
and  Melendez. 

26.  Ponce  de  Leon  (pon'-tha-da-la-6n')  was  a  gal- 
lant soldier,  but  an  old  man,  and  in  disgrace.     He 
coveted  the  glory  of  conquest  to  restore  his  tar- 
nished reputation,  and,  besides,  he  had  heard  of  a 
magical   fountain   in   this   fairy   land,  where   one 
might  bathe  and  be  young  again.     He  accordingly 
equipped  an  expedition,  and  sailed  in  search  of  this 
fabled  treasure.     On  Easter  Sunday  (Pascua  Flor- 
ida, in  Spanish),  1512,  he  came  in  sight  of  a  land 
gay  with  spring  flowers.     In  honor  of  the  day,  he 
called  it  Florida.    He  sailed  along  the  coast,  and 


UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  163 

landed  here  and  there,  but  returned  home  at  last,  an 
old  man  still,  having  found  neither  youth,  gold,  nor 
glory. 

27.  Balboa  discovered  the  Pacific  Ocean,  Sept. 
26,  1513,  while  ascending  the  mountains   of  the 
Isthmus  of  Panama. 

28.  Mexico  was  discovered  by  Grijalvah,  (gre- 
haul'-vah),  in  1518. 

29.  In  1520,  Vasquez  de   Ayllon,   (vas'-keth-da 
al'-yon),  a  wealthy  Spaniard,  undertook  an  expedi- 
tion to  America,  and,  landing  on  the  present  coast 
of  South  Carolina,  decoyed  a  number  of  natives  on 
board  his  fleet,  and  steered  for  home,  intending  to 
sell  them  in  Europe  as  slaves. 

30.  Three  of  the  vessels  were  wrecked,  and  most 
of  the  Indians  were  drowned. 

31.  De  Ayllon  was  honorably  received  by   his 
government,  and  was  sent  on  another  kidnapping 
expedition  ;  but  this  was  unsuccessful,  resulting  in 
De  Ayllon's  pecuniary  ruin.     Thus  ended  the  first 
attempt  to  enslave  the  Indians,  who,  thenceforth, 
lost  all  confidence  in  Spanish  honor. 

32.  Magellan  was  the  first  European  to  sail  upon 
the  Pacific  (1519).      On  account   of  its  calm  and 
peaceful  appearance  when  first  traversed,  he  gave 
it  the  name  Pacific.    He  was  also  the  first  that 
sailed  around  the  world  (1519-21). 

33.  De  Soto  explored  the  interior  of  the  Southern 
States,  discovering  the  Mississippi  river,  1541. 

34.  In  1565,  the  king    of  Spain, — the  bigoted 
Philip  II., — sent  Pedro  Melendez  (me-len'-deth), 


164        THE  NORMAL  QUESTION  BOOK. 

"a  soldier  of  ferocious  disposition   and   criminal 
practices,"  to  colonize  Florida. 

35.  The   real  object  of  this  expedition  was  to 
break  up  and  destroy  a  colony  of  French  Protes- 
tants, called  Huguenots,  who  the  year  before,  had 
made  a  settlement  near  the  mouth  of  the  St.  John's 
river,  territory  claimed  by  Spain. 

36.  Melendez,  with  his  men,  lauded  on  the  north- 
eastern shore,  near  the  mouth  of  a  small  river,  OE 
St.  Augustine's  day  (2d  of  September).      Here  he 
laid  the  foundation  of  the  town  of  St.  Augustine 
(Sept.,  1565),  the  oldest  settlement,  by  forty-two 
years,  within  the  United  States. 

37.  Melendez  next  turned   his  attention  to  the 
Huguenots,  whom  he  found  and  attacked.     The 
Huguenots  put  to  sea  in  their  vessels,  but  a  furious 
storm  arose  and  dashed  to  pieces  every  ship  in  the 
fleet.     Most  of  them,  however,  reached  the  shore. 
Here  they  were  attacked  by  the  forces  of  Melendez; 
and  men,  women  and  children  were  alike  butch- 
ered,— only  a  few  escaping. " 

38.  The  Spaniards,  having  planted  themselves  on 
the  great  islands  they  first  discovered,  pushed  out 
in  different  directions  to  the  mainland.     They  soon 
overran  Central  America,  Mexico  and  Peru.   Within 
the  .present  limits  of  the  United  States  they  were 
also  active:     1.   Florida,  a  vast  and  undefined  re- 
gion, was  partially  explored;    2.    The  Mississippi 
was  discovered ;  3.  New  Mexico  was  explored ;  4. 
St.  Augustine  and  Santa  Fe'  were  founded ;  5.  The 
coast  of  California  was  examined  for  many  leagues. 


UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.          165 

89.  Verrazzani  and  Cartier. 

40.  Verrazzani  (va-rat-tsah*  ne),  a  Florentine,  waa 
sent  out  by  the  French  king,  in  the  year  1524,  in 
command   of  an    exploring  expedition.     He   first 
touched  the  coast  at  North  Carolina,  and  explored 
as  far  north  as  Newfoundland.     It  is  believed  that 
he  entered  the  harbors  of  New  York  and  Newport. 
Verrazzani's   voyage   was   the   foundation   of  the 
French  claim  in  America. 

41.  In  1534,  James  Cartier,  (kar-te-ah'),  sent  out 
by  the  king  of  France,  discovered  and  explored  the 
Gulf  and  the  River  of  St.  Lawrence. 

42.  The  Cabots,  Sir  Francis  Drake,  Sir  Humphrey 
Gilbert,  Sir  Walter  Raleigh,  Bartholomew  Gosuold, 
Martin  Pring  and  George  Waymouth. 

43.  The  Cabots  discovered  Labrador  (1497) ;  and 
Sebastian  Cabot,  in  a  second  voyage,  sailed  along 
the  coast  from  Labrador  to  Chesapeake  Bay  (1498). 

44.  This  was  one  year  before  Columbus  discov- 
ered South  America,  and  two  years  before  Vespucci 
visited  the  continent. 

45.  The  first  attempt  of  the  English  to  colonize 
America  was  made  by  the  brave  Sir  Humphrey  Gil- 
bert, who,  under  authority  of  Queen    Elizabeth, 
endeavored  to  establish  a  settlement  at  New  Found- 
land  (1583).     The  enterprise  was  unsuccessful. 

46.  Raleigh  sent  an  expedition  to  North  Caro- 


166         THE  NORMAL  QUESTION  BOOK. 

lina  (1584) ;  and  made  two  attempts  to  found  a  col 
ony  (1585,  1587). 

47.  The  first  white  child  of  English  parents  in 
America  was  born  at  the  temporary  settlement  on 
the  island  of  Roanoke,  in  1587. 

48.  Her  name  was  Virginia  Dare. 

49.  Raleigh  called  the  lands  he  explored,  Vir- 
ginia, in  honor  of  Elizabeth,  who  was  called  the 
Virgin  Queen. 

50.  Grosnold  explored  the  coast  of  Massachusetts 
(1602). 

51.  The  Dutch  made  a  single  expedition  under 
Henry  Hudson,  who  discovered  and  explored  the 
Hudson  river,  and  traversed  the  coast  northward 
to  Hudson  Bay. 

52.  In  1609. 

53.  The  Spanish  claim  of  Florida  stretched  north- 
ward without  any  definite  limits. 

54.  It  was  chiefly  based  on  the  expedition  of  De 
Leon. 

55.  The  French  claim,  under  tne  name  of  New 
France,  extended  from  New  York  to  Labrador, 
and  was  founded  on  the  voyage  of  Verrazzani.  Dur- 
ing the  following  century  it  was  extended  to  the 
great  lakes  and  the  entire  Mississippi  Valley. 

56.  The  English  claim  of  Virginia  stretched  from 
Florida  as  far  as  Labrador. 


UNITED   STATES   HISTORY.  167 

57.  It  was  based  on  the  voyages  of  the  Cabots. 

58.  All  these  three  nations  claimed  westward  to 
the  Pacific  Ocean. 

59.  Spain  claimed  the  Pacific  Coast  by  explora- 
tion. 

60.  The  Dutch  claim,  named  New  Netherland, 
in  the  year  1614  was  based  on  Hudson's  discovery, 
and  extended  from  the  40th  to  the  45th  degree 
north  latitude. 

61.  These  explorations  had  lasted  during  the  fif- 
teenth and  sixteenth  centuries. 

62.  At  the  close  of  the  sixteenth   century,  the 
only   permanent   settlements   were    those    of   the 
Spaniards  at  St.  Augustine  and  Santa  Fe'. 

63.  (1)  The  French  at  Port  Royal,  K  S  ,  1605. 

(2)  The  English  at  Jamestown,  1607. 

(3)  The  French  at  Quebec,  1608. 

(4)  The  Dutch  at  New  York,  1613. 

(5)  The  English  Puritans  at  Plymouth,  1620. 

64.  The    principal    inducements   that    first   led 
Europeans  to  come  to  America  were  :  the  hope  of 
finding  a  western  passage  to  India;  eagerness  to 
amass  sudden  fortunes  by  conquest  or  mining  ;  cu- 
riosity and  love  of  adventure ;  the  prospect  of  profit 
from  the  Newfoundland  fisheries,  and  from  trade 
in  train-oil,  walrus  tusks,  bear  skins,  and  beaver 
skins;  zeal  to   convert  heathen  peoples  to  Chris- 
tianity, and  the  design  of  planting  colonies. 


168  THE    NORMAL   QUESTION   BOOK. 

65.  April  10, 1606,  was  an  important  day  for  the 
western  continent.     On  that  day  the  king  of  Eng- 
land issued  two  great  patents  to  men  of  that  coun- 
try, authorizing  them  to  possess  and  colonize  most 
of  that  portion  of  North  America  lying  between  the 
thirty-fourth  and  forty-fifth  degrees  of  latitude,  and 
extending  from  ocean  to  ocean. 

66.  The  London  Company  was  an  association  com- 
posed of  nobles,  gentlemen,  and  merchants  residing 
in  London. 

67.  To  this  company  was  granted  the  territory 
lying  between  the  thirty-fourth  and  thirty-eighth 
degrees — from  Cape  Fear  to  the  Potomac. 

68.  The  Plymouth  Company  was  composed  of 
persons  from  Plymouth,  in  the  west  of  England. 

69.  It  was  granted  the  exclusive  right  to  plant 
colonies  between  the  forty-first  and  forty-fifth  de- 
grees, from  NQW  York  city  to  Halifax. 

70.  In  May,  1607,  a  colony  of  one  hundred  and 
five  persons,  under  the  auspices   of  the   London 
Company,  began  the  settlement  of  Jamestown,  OD 
the  James  river,  in  Virginia. 

71.  This  was  the  first  permanent  English  settle- 
ment in  America. 

72.  They  were  mostly  gentlemen  by  birth,  unused 
to  labor.     They  had  no  families,  and  came  out  in 
search  of  wealth  or  adventure,  expecting,   when 
rich,  to  return  to  England. 


'UNITED   STATES   HISTORY.  169 

73.  The  climate  was  unhealthy,  and  before  the 
first  autumn  half  of  their  number  had  perished. 

74.  Captain  John  Smith. 

75.  John   Smith   alone  saved   the   colony    from 
ruin.     First  as  a  member  of  the  council,  and  after- 
ward, as  president,  his  services   were    invaluable. 
He  persuaded  the  settlers  to  erect  a  fort  and  build 
log  huts  for  the  winter.     He  made  long  voyages, 
carefully  exploring  Chesapeake  Bay,  securing  the 
friendship  of  the  Indians,  and  bringing  back  boat- 
loads of  supplies.     He  trained  the  tender  gentle- 
men till  they  learned  how  to  swing  the  ax  in  the 
forest.     He  declared  that  "  he  who  would  not  work, 
might  not  eat."     He  taught  them  that  industry 
and  self-reliance  are  the  surest  guarantees  to  for- 
tune. 

76.  A  well-known  story  is  related  of  Smith  on 
one  of  his  expeditious.     He  was  captured  by  the 
Indians  and  carried  before  their  chief,  Powhatan, 
whose  headquarters  were  near  the  present  site  of 
Richmond.     He  was  condemned  to  death,  but  was 
saved  by  Powhatan's  daughter,  Pocahontas.     It  is 
believed  that  this  is  a  fiction  ;  but  there  really  was 
such  an  Indian  girl  as  Pocahontas.  and,  some  years 
after,  she  married  one  of  the  colonists,  named  John 
Bolfe. 

77.  In  1619  the  first  representative  assembly  ever 
convened  in  America  was  held  at  Jamestown. 

78.  Negro  slaves  were  first  brought  to  Virginia 
in  a  Dutch  man-of-war,  in  1620.     They  were  soon 
afterward  introduced  into  all  the  other  colonies. 


170  THE   NORMAL   QUESTION   BOOK. 

The  price  of  a  negro  in  New  Amsterdam  ranged 
between  $125  and  $150. 

79.  In  1660  the  English  Parliament  passed  cer 
tain  laws  called  the  Navigation  Acts. 

80.  The  purpose  of  these  acts  was  to  give  Eng, 
land  the  entire  control  of  all  the  trade  of  the  col- 
onies. 

81.  The  Virginians  were  not  allowed   to    send 
their  products   anywhere   but   to   England;    they 
were  not  allowed  to  buy  goods  anywhere  but  in 
England;  and  everything  had  to  be  carried  in  Eng- 
lish vessels. 

82.  These  laws  bore  very  heavily  on  Virginia. 
They  produced  great  discontent,  and  were  one  of 
the  causes  of  the  revolution. 

83.  In   1676,  civil  war  broke  out   in  Virginia. 
This  war  is  known  as  "Bacon's  rebellion." 

84.  The  cause  of  it  was  ill-feeling  which  had 
arisen  between  the  people  and  the  aristocratic  party 
in  Virginia. 

85.  The  country  was  laid  waste,  and  Jamestown 
burned  to  the  ground;  but  it  was  terminated  by 
the  death  of  Bacon. 

86.  At  Plymouth,  Massachusetts,  in  1620,  by  the 
pilgrims. 

87.  In  1614  this  section  of  the  country  was  vis- 
ited by  the  celebrated  Captain  Smith,  who  explored 
the  coast,  and,  on   his   return  to  Europe,  made  a 
map  of  the  country  and  called  it  New  England. 


UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.          171 

88.  In  1636,  by  a  company  of  persons  from  Mas- 
Bach  usetts,  with  their  minister,  Mr.  Hooker. 

89.  At  Windsor,  Hartford  and  Weathersfield. 

90.  Rhode  Island  was  settled  in  1636,  by  Roger 
Williams,  a  clergyman,  who  was   expelled   from 
Massachusetts  on  account  of  his  religious  opinions. 

91.  By  the  Rev.  Mr.  Wheelright,  and  a  few  fol- 
lowers, who  were  also  banished  from  Massachusetts 
on  account  of  their  religion. 

92.  The  first  settlement  in  Maine  was  made  by 
Ferdinand  Gorges  in  1636. 

93.  They  suffered  greatly  from  the  hostilities  of 
the  Indians. 

94.  Columbus  himself  carried  a  considerable  num- 
ber of  the  natives  to  Europe,  where  they  were  sold 
into  slavery. 

Another  explorer  carried  off  fifty  to  the  same 
fate. 

Another,  having  induced  the  confiding  Indians 
to  enter  his  ship,  closed  the  hatchways,  spread  the 
sails  and  started  for  the  West  Indies.  Another 
enticed  the  king  of  the  Hurons  on  board  his  vessel, 
and  carried  the  captive  chief  to  France,  where  he 
died  of  loneliness  and  grief.  Their  wrongs  would 
make  a  long  record  of  inhumanity.  "The  entire 
aboriginal  population  of  the  West  Indies  became 
extinct  under  the  iron  rule  of  the  Spaniards."  The 
practice  of  selling  Indians  into  bondage  in  Europe 
continued  for  nearly  two  centuries.  The  news  of 
these  and  other  wrongs  spread  from  wigwam  to 


172         THE  NORMAL  QUESTION  BOOK. 

wigwam,  from  tribe  to  tribe,  till  the  tales  of  treach- 
ery and  outrage  reached  the  most  distant  nations 
of  North  America,  and  a  general  distrust  of  the 
whites  spread  among  the  Indians,  which  led  to 
three  hundred  years  border  warfare,  and  which  was 
in  no  wise  allayed  by  the  conduct  of  the  colonists 
themselves  toward  the  savages. 

95.  Rev.  John  Eliot,  who  was  followed  by  John 
Sargent,  David  Brainard,  David  Zeisberger,  James 
Marquette,  Thomas  Mayhew,  and  others. 

96.  They  took  deep  interest  in  the  affairs  of  ed- 
ucation, and  at  an  early  period  established  schools 
and  colleges  for  the  education  of  their  children. 

97.  In  the  year  1638,  at  Cambridge. 

98.  In  the  year  1693,  in  Virginia. 

99.  In  the  year  1700,  at  Saybrook,  in  Connecti- 
cut. 

100.  In  the  year  1769,  at  Hanover,  New  Hamp- 
shire. 

101.  By  a  company  of  Dutch,  in  the  year  1614 

102.  They  sailed  on  the  Hudson  river,  and  com- 
menced a  settlement  near  the  present  city  of  Al- 
bany; they  also  commenced  another  settlement  on 
Manhattan  Island,  where  the  city  of  New  York 
now  stands,  and  called  it  New  Amsterdam. 

103.  New  Amsterdam    was   conquered    by   the 


UNITED    STATES    HISTORY.  173 

English,   and   called  New  York,  in  honor  of  the 
Duke  of  York,  to  whom  it  was  granted. 

104.  Peter  Minuit,  WouterVan  T wilier,  Sir  Wil- 
liam Kieft  and  Peter  Stuyvesant. 

105.  Delaware  was  settled  by  the  Swedes  and 
Finns.,  in  1630. 

106.  Near  the  entrance  of  the  Delaware  Bay, 
where  they  laid  the  foundation  of  Lewistown,  the 
oldest  town  in  the  State. 

107.  The  Swedes  and  Finns  were  conquered,  and 
their  colony  subdued  by  Stuyvesant,  the  Governor 
of  New  Netherlands. 

108.  The  settlement  of  Maryland  was  commenced 
in  1633,  by  a  colony  of  Roman   Catholics  under 
Lord  Baltimore,  a  native  of  England. 

109.  They  left    England    because    they    were 
greatly  persecuted  on  account  of  their  religion. 

110.  They  landed  on  the  shores  of  the  Chesapeake 
Bay,  and  commenced  a  settlement  at  a  village  which 
they  purchased  from  the  Indians,  and  called  St. 
Mary's. 

111.  The  government  of  Lord  Baltimore  was  es- 
tablished on  the  most  liberal  principles.     Civil  and 
religious  liberty  were  proclaimed ;  no  one  was  mo- 
lested on  account  of  his  religion  ;  and  all  were  per- 
mitted to  worship  God  according  to  the  dictates  of 
their  own  conscience. 


174        THE  NORMAL  QUESTION  BOOK. 

112.  To  the  Roman  Catholics  of  Maryland. 

113.  By  a  company  of  Friends,  or  Quakers,  un- 
der the  celebrated  William  Penn. 

114.  The  first  company  arrived  in  the  year  1681, 
but  Penn  himself  did  not  arrive  until  about  a  year 
.fater,  with  another  party. 

115.  They  purchased  the  land  from  the  natives, 
and   commenced   a   settlement   on   the    Delaware 
river,  where  the  city  of  Philadelphia  now  stands 

116.  Penn's  behavior  to  the  Indians  was  truly 
noble  and  Christian -like.     Soon  after  his  arrival, 
he  made  his  famous  treaty  with  the  Indians.    Both 
parties  lived  up  to  this  treaty ;  and  as  long  as  the 
Quaker  control  of  the  colony  lasted,  which  was 
seventy  years,  there  was   unbroken   harmony  be-' 
tween  the  whites  and  red  man. 

117.  The  boundary  between  Pennsylvania  and 
Maryland  had  caused  much  trouble  for  many  years. 
It  was  finally  settled  in  1767,  when  two  surveyors, 
Mason    and   Dixon,  fixed   the   present  boundary. 
The  boundary  was  afterwards  known  as  "Mason 
and  Dixori's  line." 

118.  In  the  year  1650,  by  a  colony  from  Virginia. 

119.  Near  Albemarle  sound. 

120.  In  the  year  1689,  where  Charleston  now 
stands. 

121.  In  the  year  1700  the  cultivation  of  cotton 
and  rice  was  introduced. 

122.  In  the  year  1732,  by  Mr.  Oglethorpe,  who 


UNITED   STATES   HISTORY.  175 

commenced  a  settlement  where  the  city  of  Savan- 
nah now  stands. 

123.  It  was  called  Georgia  in  honor  of  George  the 
Second,  at  that  time  king  of  England. 

124.  In  the  year  1750  the  great  hody  of  the  in- 
habitants in  the  colonies  were  either  English  or 
their  descendants. 

125.  The  Dutch,  French,  Scotch,  Irish,  Swedes 
and  Germans. 

126.  The  Dutch  were  numerous  in  New  York; 
the  French  were  found  in  New  York  and  South 
Carolina;   the  Scotch  and   Irish,  in   East  Jersey, 
the  Carolinas,  and  Georgia;   the  Swedes,  on   the 
Delaware ;    the    Germans,   in    Pennsylvania    and 
North  Carolina. 

127.  In  New  England  the  inhabitants  were  occu- 
pied in  farming,  lumbering,  manufacturing,  ship- 
building, and  the  fisheries. 

128.  In  the  middle  States  they  were  chiefly  farm- 
ers. 

129.  In   Virginia  and    Maryland   the  principal 
staple   was   tobacco,  and  farming  was  the  main 
business. 

130.  In    Carolina   and    Georgia  were   the  rice 
plantations,  near  the  coast;  on  the  highlands  the 
settlers  were  farmers.     Cotton  was  not  yet  culti- 
vated to  any  extent. 

131.  The  most  commercial  colony  was  Massachu- 
setts. 

132.  Boston,  from  the  first,  was  the  most  active 
of  all  the  towns  in  shipping. 

133.  If  we  examine  a  map  of  Virginia,  we  may 


176         THE  NORMAL  QUESTION  BOOK. 

notice  how  many  large  rivers  run  into  Chesapeake 
Bay.  Up  these  the  ships  went  to  the  plantations, 
and  took  away  the  produce  of  the  planters,  leaving 
other  things  in  exchange.  This  is  the  reason  why 
the  colonists  of  Virginia  did  not  collect  in  large 
towns. 

134.  The  trade   of  the   colonies   was,   in   early 
times,  mainly  carried  on  by  exchange  or  barter. 

135.  In  Virginia,  for  a  long  time,  tobacco  was 
used  as  money ;  in  New  England,  wampum,  made 
of  shells;  in  New  York,  beaver-skins. 

136.  The  currency  was  English  pounds,  shillings, 
and  pence. 

137.  Dollars  and  cents  came  in  with  the  Revolu^ 
tion. 

138.  The  mode  of  life  was  exceedingly  simple. 
The  people  wore  home-spun    clothes,   and   made 
their  yarn  from  the  wool  of  their  own  sheep.     All 
persons  were  required  by  law  to  dress  within  their 
means.     The  roads  were  poor  and  wheeled  vehicles 
were  scarce.     The  food  was  simple  but  abundant. 
The   houses  were  mostly  log  cabins,   with   small 
windows,  and  chimneys  made  of  sticks  and  clay 
plaster.     The  furniture  was  generally  very  simple 
and  plain. 

139.  The  religious  belief  of  the  colonists  differed 
greatly,  though  nearly  the  entire  population  pro- 
fessed Christianity.     Maryland,  founded  by  Catho- 
lics, soon  had,  like  the  other  colonies,  a  majority 
of  Protestants.     The  Church  of  England  (the  Epis- 
copal) prevailed  in  Virginia  and  South  Carolina. 


UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.          177 

In  New  England,  the  people  were  largely  Calvin- 
istic  in  doctrine  and  Congregational  in  practice. 
In  New  York,  the  Dutch  Reformed  were  supreme. 
The  Quaker  element  predominated  in  Pennsyl- 
vania, Delaware,  Rhode  Island  and  New  Jersey. 
Roger  Williams  established  at  Providence  the  first 
Baptist  church  in  America.  The  French  Protest- 
ants (the  Huguenots)  were  found  in  considerable 
numbers  in  New  York  and  Carolina. 

140.  A  war  of  sects  was  waged  in  several  of  the 
colonies.     The  people  forgot  their  ideas  of  toler- 
ance and  religious  equality  when  power  came  to 
them.     "  New    England   Protestants   appealed   to 
Liberty ;  then  they  closed  the  door  against  her." 
It  was  a  sad,  strange,  picture  of  life.     The  Puri- 
tans imprisoned    Baptists  and  executed  Quakers. 
The  Churchmen  in  Virginia  banished  Puritans  and 
imprisoned  Baptists.     The  Protestants  in  Mary- 
land  disfranchised   the    Catholics.     But   as   years 
passed  away,  a  more  kind,  tolerant  spirit  prevailed, 
and,  long  before  the  end  of  the  colonial  period,  the 
illiberal  sentiment  of  persecution  had  passed  away. 

141.  The  thirteen  colonies,  each  and  all,  from  the 
time  of  their  founding  down  to  the  Declaration  of 
Independence  in  1776,  were  under  the  dominion  of 
the  crown  of  England. 

142.  There  were  several  different  kinds  of  gov- 
ernment in  the  colonies,  and  various  colonies  from 
time   to   time   changed   their  government.       The 
kinds  of  government  were:     Commercial  corpora- 

12 


178        THE  NORMAL  QUESTION  BOOK. 

tion,  proprietary,  royal,  charter,  and  voluntary  as* 
sociation. 

143.  The  government  of  a  commercial  corpora- 
tion, as  the  London  Company,  which  ruled  over 
Virginia  in  early  times. 

A  144.  Proprietary  government,  the  rule  being  un- 
der some  proprietor  or  proprietary  to  whom  the 
king  granted  the  province. 

145.  Pennsylvania    under  William    Penn,   and 
Maryland  under  Lord  Baltimore,  are  examples  of 
proprietary  government. 

146.  Royal  government,  or  the  government  of 
the  king  of  England  through  some  royal  governor 
appointed  by  the  crown. 

147.  Almost  all  the   colonies   were,    sooner  or 
later,  under  royal  government. 

148.  Charter  government  was  the   government 
of  the  colonies  by  a  charter  or  written  instrument, 
given  by  the  king,  and  granting  certain  political 
rights  and  privileges. 

149.  There  were  some  colonies  founded  by  the 
people  themselves,  without  the  authority  of  king 
or  company  or  proprietor.     This  kind  of  govern- 
ment may  be  called  government  by  voluntary  as- 
sociation. 

150.  The  Salem  Witchcraft  and  the  "  negro  plot " 
of  New  York. 

151.  In  the  year  1639,  an  English  printer  named 
Stephen  Day,  set  up  at  Cambridge  the  first  printing 
press.     The  first  newspaper  appeared  in  1704,  and 
was  called  the  "Boston  News-Letter." 


UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.          179 

152.  John  Campbell  was  the  first  American  edi- 
tor. 

153.  Increase  Mather,  one  of  the  early  presidents 
of  Harvard  College,  and  his  son,  Cotton  Mather. 
Cotton   Mather's  Magnalia,  a  religious  history  of 
New  England,  was  the  first  important  book  written 
by  a  native  of  this  country. 

154.  The  pulpit   was   a  great  educator  of  the 
times.     Many  of  the  ministers  were  men  of  supe- 
rior scholarship,  who  preached  their  long,  strong 
sermons  to  congregations  of  farmers,   mechanics, 
and  small  tradespeople  of  the  district.     In  many  a 
parsonage  the  Scriptures  were  read  in  the  original 
languages  at  the  morning  and  evening  worship. 
For  two-thirds  of  a  century  metaphysical  theology 
had  held  the  ascendancy  in  the  ministry;  but  the 
clergy  did  not  stop  with  the  discussion  of  dogmas; 
they  led  and  inspired  the  people ;  they  kept  pa- 
triotism aflame;  they  promoted  vital  religion;  they 
moulded  national  character. 

155.  In  the  year  1693,  Parliament  voted  to  estab- 
lish post-offices  in  the  colonies,  and  Thomas  !N"eale 
was  authorized  to  transmit  letters  and  packets  "  at 
such  rates  as  the  planters  should  agree  to  give." 

156.  Jonathan  Edwards,  the  theologian;  Benja- 
min  Franklin,    the    philosopher   and   statesman  j 
James  Otis  and  Patrick  Henry,  the  great  orators. 

157.  Nearly  3,000,000. 

158.  I.  King  William's  war;  II.  Queen  Anne's 


180  THE  NORMAL   QUESTION   BOOK. 

war ;   III.  King  George's  war ;    IV.  French    and 
Indian  war. 

159.  King  William's  war  was  a  contest  between 
France  and  England.     When  James  II.  was  forced 
to  abdicate  the  throne,  he  fled   to   France.     The 
king  of  that  country  lent  him  an  army  to  assist 
him  in  his  attempts  to  regain  the  throne.     This 
led  to  a  war  between  the  two  countries,  which  ex- 
tended to  their  colonies  in  America. 

160.  The  war  began  in  1689,  and  closed  in  1697, 
by  the  treaty  of  Ryswick. 

161.  England,  Holland  and  Germany  formed  an 
alliance  against  France  in  1701,  to  prevent  the  union 
of  France  and  Spain.     The  war  which  followed  is 
known  in   English  history  by  the  name  of  "  the 
war  of  the  Spanish  succession."     In  this  country 
it  was  called  "  Queen  Anne's  war." 

162.  It  began  in  1702  and  continued  till  1713— 
eleven  years. 

163.  It  was   ended   by  the  treaty   of  Utrecht. 
Acadia  was  ceded  to  England. 

164.  Disputes  arose  in  Europe  about  the  succes- 
sion to  the  Austrian  throne,  and  France  and  Eng- 
land took  opposite  sides. 

165.  The   principal   event  in  America  was  the 
capture  of  the  strong  French  fortress  of  Louisburg, 
on  Cape  Breton  Island. 

166.  The  war  began  in  1744  an'd  ended  in  1748 
by  the  treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  in  Prussia. 


UNITED   STATES   HISTORY.  181 

167.  Louisburg,  the  capture  of  which  had  cost 
the  colonies  so  much  effort,  was  restored  to  France. 

168.  Jealousy  and  envy  on  account  of  their  re- 
spective  possessions   in  America   were   the  chief 
causes  of  the  war. 

169.  Between  England  and  her  colonies,  with  a 
few  Indians,  on  the  one  side,  and  France  and  her 
colonies,  largely  aided  by  the  Indians,  on  the  other. 

170.  The  seven  years  war. 

171.  Washington's  journey  across  the  Alleghe- 
nies,  battle  of  the  Great  Meadows,  Braddock's  de- 
feat, capture  of  Louisburg,  battle  of  Lake  George, 
capture  of  Crown  Point  and  Ticonderoga,  capture 
of  Niagara  and  Quebec. 

172.  English,  Braddock,  Amherst,  Wolfe,  Aber- 
crombie  and  Washington;   French,   Dieskau  and 
Montcalm. 

173.  This  war  broke  out  in  1754,  and  closed  by 
the  treaty  of  Paris,  1763. 

174.  France  ceded  to  Great  Britain  all  her  Amer- 
ican possessions  east  of  the  Mississippi,  and  north 
of  the  Iberville  river,  in  Louisiana.     At  the  same 
time  Spain  ceded  Florida  to  Great  Britain. 

175.  The  isolated  position  of  America,  the  ten- 
dency of  her  governments  and  anti-monarchial  in- 
stitutions, the  prevailing  customs  and  opinions  of 
her  self-reliant  people,  inevitably  destined  her  for 


182        THE  NORMAL  QUESTION  BOOK. 

a  separate  national  existence.  Causes  less  natural 
hastened  severance  from  the  mother  country. 
Among  these  causes  were  unjust  legislation  in  Eng- 
land, and  despotic  administration  of  British  officials 
in  the  colonies. 

176.  Writs  of  assistance  were  granted,  empower- 
ing the  holder  to  invade  any  one's  premises  and 
search  for  contraband  goods. 

177.  The  "  Stamp  Act,"  passed  in  1765,  requir- 
ing a  heavy  duty  to  be  paid  upon  all  legal  docu- 
ments, newspapers,  pamphlets,  etc. 

178.  The   "Boston  Port  Bill"  passed  in   1774, 
effectually  destroying  the  business  of  New  England 
merchants. 

179.  The  "  Mutiny  Act,"  passed  in  1774,  requir- 
ing the  colonists  to  provide  quarters  and  supplies 
for  British  troops  stationed  among  them. 

180.  The  Colonial  Congress  met  in  October,  1765, 
at  New  York,  and  agreed  on  a  "Declaration  of 
rights  and  grievances  of  the  colonies."    A  petition 
to  the  king  and  memorials  to  both  houses  of  Par- 
liament were  also  prepared  and  adopted. 

'181.  The  first  Continental  Congress  was  held  at 
Philadelphia,  September  5,  1774. 

182.  It  consisted,  of  talented  and  influential  men 
from  all  the  colonies,  except  Georgia. 

183.  It  issued  a  protest  against  standing  armies 
being  kept  in  the  colonies  without  consent  of  the 


UNITED   STATES    HISTORY. 

people,  and  agreed  to  hold  no  intercourse  with 
Great  Britain. 

184.  Peyton  Eandolph,  of  Virginia,  was  chosen 
president,  and  Charles  Thomson,  of  Pennsylvania, 
secretary. 

185.  Two  parties  had  arisen,  Whigs  and  Tories, 
the  latter  friends  to  Parliament  and  the  king. 

186.  May  10, 1775,  the  second  Continental  Con- 
gress convened  at  Philadelphia.     That   body  de- 
cided to  raise  an  army  of  twenty  thousand  men; 
ind,  on  the  15th  of  June,  by  a  unanimous  vote, 
elected  George  Washington  commander-in-chief  of 
"the  forces  raised  or  to  be  raised  in  defense  of 
American  liberties  " 

187.  On  the  4th  of  July,  1776,  congress  passed 
the  famous  Declaration  of  Independence  from  Great 
Britain  forever. 

188.  The  great  man  who  wrote  this  Declaration 
was   Thomas   Jefferson,   of  Virginia,  assisted  by 
Benjamin  Franklin,  of  Pennsylvania ;  Roger  Sher- 
man,  of  Connecticut;   Eobert  R.  Livingston,  of 
New  York,  and  John  Adams,  of  Massachusetts. 

189.  Through  the  commissionership  of  Franklin, 
secret  aid  in  the  form  of  loans  and  war  stores  was 
obtained  from  France.     A  number  of  foreign  pa- 
triots volunteered  their  services  to  aid  the  cause  of 
American  independence.  Among  those  that,  during 
the  war,  rendered  valuable  services  as  officers  were 
the  German  barons  John  De  Kalb  and  Frederick 

.,  the  Poles  Thaddeus  Kosciusko  and  Count 


184        THE  NORMAL  QUESTION  BOOK. 

Casimir  Pulaski,  and  especially  the  French  Marquis 
de  La  Fayette. 

190.  "  The  Stars  and  Stripes  "—the  prettiest  flag 
in  the  world — was  adopted  as  the  emblem  of  our 
nationality,  June  14,  1777.     The  13  stripes,  7  red 
and  6  white,  alternating,  represent   the   Thirteen 
Original  States,  and   an  additional   star  is   placed 
upon  it  for  every  new   State.     Thirty-eight  stars 
now  spangle  its  blue  fold. 

191.  In  September,  1780,  the  treason  of  Benedict 
Arnold  was  discovered.     This  man,  an  unsuccess- 
ful horse-dealer  in  Connecticut,  had  entered  the 
army  at  the  beginning  of  the  war,  and  had  gained 
much  credit  on  the  expedition  to  Quebec  in  1775. 
He  was  now  discontented,  and   offered   to  betray 
West  Point,  of  which,  by  a  display  of  patriotism, 
he  had  gained  command.     Major  John  Andre,  who 
was  the  agent  of  communication  between  General 
Clinton  and  Arnold,  was  captured   and  the   plan 
exposed.     Arnold  escaped  to  England,  but  Andre 
was  hung  as  a  spy  at  Tappan,  1ST.  Y.,  October  2d. 

192.  1.    Battle  of  Lexington,   April   19,   1775; 
Americans  victorious.     Maj.  Pitcairn  commanded 
British ;  Americans  had  no  commander.     2.  Cap- 
ture of  Ticonderoga  by  Americans,  May  10,  1775. 
Allen  and  Arnold  commanded  Americans;  Dela- 
place,  the  British.     3.  Battle  of  Bunker  Hill,  June 
17, 1775  ;  Americans  defeated.     Col.  Prescott  com- 
manded Americans;  Gen.  Howe,  the  British.     4. 
Attack  on 'Quebec,  December  31,  1775;  Americans 
defeated.     Montgomery   and   Arnold  commanded 


UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.          185 

Americans ;  Carleton,  the  British.  5.  Evacuation 
of  Boston  by  the  British,  March  17,  1776.  Wash- 
ington commanded  Americans ;  Gen'.  Howe,  the 
British.  6.  Battle  of  Long  Island,  August  ^  27, 
1776 ;  Americans  defeated.  Washington  commanded 
Americans;  Gens.  Howe  and  Clinton,  the  British. 
7.  Battle  of  White  Plains,  Oct.  28, 1776 ;  Americans 
defeated.  Washington  commanded  Americans; 
Gen.  Howe,  the  British.  8.  Battle  of  Trenton, 
Dec.  25, 1776;  Americans  victorious.  Washington 
commanded  Americans;  Col.  Rahl,  the  Hessians. 
9.  Battle  of  Princeton,  Jan.  3,  1777;  Americans 
victorious.  Washington  commanded  Americans; 
Cornwallis,  the  British.  10.  Battle  of  Bennington, 
Aug.  10,  1777;  Americans  victorious.  Gen.  Stark 
commanded  Americans;  Col.  Baum,  the  British. 
11.  Battle  of  the  Brandywine,  Sept.  17, 1777 ;  Amer- 
icans defeated.  Washington  commanded  Ameri- 
cans; Cornwallis  and  Clinton,  the  British.  12. 
Battle  of  Germantown,  Oct.  4,  1777;  Americans 
defeated.  Washington  commanded  Americans; 
Gen.  Howe,  the  British.  13.  First  Battle  of  Sara- 
toga, Sept.  19,  1777;  Americans  victorious.  Gen. 
Gates  commanded  Americans;  Gen.  Burgoyne,  the 
British.  14.  Second  Battle  of  Saratoga,  Oct.  7, 
1777;  Americans  victorious.  General  Gates  corn* 
manded  Americans;  Gen.  Burgoyne,  the  British, 
15.  Battle  of  Monmouth,  June  28,  1778;  neither 
army  victorious.  Washington  commanded  Amer* 
leans;  Gen.  Clinton, the  British.  16.  Massacre  of 
Wyoming,  July  3,  1778,  by  Tories  and  Indians. 
Butler  and  Brandt  conducted  the  slaughter.  17. 
Massacre  at  Cherry  Valley,  Nov.  17,  1778,  by  To- 


186         THE  NORMAL  QUESTION  BOOK. 

ries  and  Indians.  Butler  and  Brandt  conducted  the 
slaughter.  18.  Capture  of  Stony  Point,  July  25, 
1779,  by  the' Americans;  Gen.  Wayne  commanded 
Americans;  Col.  Johnson,  the  British.  19.  Attack 
on  Savannah,  Sept.,  1779;  Americans  repulsed. 
Lincoln  and  D'Estaing  commanded  Americans  and 
French ;  Prevost,  the  British.  20.  Paul  Jones's 
Naval  Battle,  Sept.  23, 1779 ;  Americans  victorious. 
Paul  Jones  commanded  Americans ;  Pearson,  the 
British.  21.  Capture  of  Charleston,  May  12,  1780, 
by  the  British.  Gen.  Lincoln  commanded  Amer- 
icans; Gen.  Cornwallis,  the  British.  22.  Battle  of 
Camden,  May  12,  1780;  Americans  defeated.  Gen. 
Gates  commanded  Americans;  Cornwallis,  the 
British.  23.  Battle  of  King's  Mountain,  October 
7,  1780;  Americans  victorious.  Campbell  and 
Shelby  commanded  Americans;  Maj.  Ferguson, 
the  British.  24.  Battle  of  the  Cowpens,  Jan.  17, 
1781;  Americans  victorious.  Gen.  Morgan  com- 
manded Americans;  Col.  Tarleton,  the  British. 
25. 'Battle  of  Eutaw  Springs,  Sept.  8,  1781;  Amer- 
icans victorious.  Gen.  Greene  commanded  Amer- 
icans; Cornwallis,  the  British.  26.  Siege  of  York- 
town.  Surrender  of  Cornwallis,  October  19,  1781. 
Washington  commanded  Americans;  Cornwallis, 
the  British. 

193.  On  the  30th  of  November,  1782,  a  prelimi- 
nary treaty  was  signed  at  Paris,  by  commissioners 
from  the  two  governments,  those  from  the  United 
States  being  John  Adams,  Benjamin  Franklin, 
John  Jay,  and  Henry  Laurens.  On  the  19th  of 
April,  1783,  a  cessation  of  hostilities  was  pro- 


UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  187 

claimed  in  the  American  army;  and  on  the  3d  of 
September  following  a  definite  treaty  was  signed 
at  Paris 

194.  By  the  terms  of  the  treaty,  Great  Britain 
acknowledged   the   independence   of    the   United 
States,  and  the  boundaries  were  fixed  at  the  great 
lakes  on  the  north  and  the  Mississippi  on  the  west. 
She  also  conceded  the  right  to  fish  on  the  banks  of 
Newfoundland.     Florida  was  returned  to  Spain. 

195.  The  articles  of  confederation. 

196.  1.  Congress  could  ascertain  the  sum  neces- 
sary to  defray  the  expense  of  the  public  service, 
but  it  could  not  collect  a  dollar.     It  could  contract 
debts,  but  it  could  not  raise  money.     Some  of  the 
states  made  the  desired   levy,  some  delayed,  and 
others  refused.     2.  There  was  no  power  to  regulate 
commerce,  either  foreign  or  domestic.     State  tax- 
ation of  goods  brought  in  from  adjoining  states, 
was  very  common,  and  produced  endless  disputes 
and  bitterness.     3.  Nearly  all  the  powers  of  Con- 
gress were  merely  advisory.     It  could  declare  any- 
thing, but  it  could  do  nothing. 

197.  It  was  adopted  September  17,  1787,  by  a 
convention  at  Philadelphia,  which  was  called  to 
revise  the  articles  of  confederation. 

198.  In  some  sections  the  new  constitution  met 
with  the  most  determined  opposition.     Two  politi- 
cal parties  came  into  existence — the  Federalists  and 
Anti-Federalists,  or  Republicans. 


188         THE  NORMAL  QUESTION  BOOK. 

199.  The   former  favored   the  constitution,  and 
advocated  a  centralized  government ;  the  latter  ad- 
vocated the  doctrine  of  state  sovereignty,  and  op- 
posed a  central  government. 

200.  The  leaders  of  the  Federal  party  were  Alex- 
ander Hamilton,  James  Madison  and   John   Jay. 
Thomas  Jefferson  was  the  great  head  of  the  Anti- 
Federal,  or  Republican  party. 

201.  Philadelphia,    1774-76;    Baltimore,    1776; 
Philadelphia,    1777;    Lancaster    and    New   York, 
1777;  Philadelphia,  1778-83;  Princeton,  1783;  An- 
napolis, 1783;  Trenton,  1784;  York,  1785-89. 

202.  The  first  slavery  troubles  arose  in  the  con- 
rention  that  adopted  the  constitution  of  the  United 

States.     Violent  disputes   arose  between  the  two 
sections  concerning  the  ratio  of  representation. 

203.  The  northern  members  claimed  that  slaves 
should  not  be  counted  in  representation  and  taxa- 
tion ;  the  southern,  that  they  should. 

204.  A  compromise  was  effected  by  which  ever 
afterward  during  the  existence  of  slavery  in  the 
country,  five  slaves  were  equal  in  political  power 
to  three  white  men. 

205.  This  power  was  exercised  by  the  masters, 
and  not  by  the  slaves;  and  thus,  in  several  States 
of  the  South  a  white  man  had  twice  as  much  po- 
litical power  as  a  white  man  in  the  North. 

206.  George  Washington.     1789.     By  the  whole 
people. 


UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.          189 

207.  Appointment  of  the  cabinet,  United  States 
Bank    chartered,    capital    of    the    United    States 
changed,  Vermont,  Kentucky  and   Tennessee  ad- 
mitted into  the  Union,  Indian  war  in  Ohio,  death 
of  Franklin.     Events  of  Washington's  second  ad- 
ministration :  Genet  recalled  by  France,  the  whisky 
rebellion,  treaty  with  "England. 

208.  New  York  city  was  the  first  seat  of  our 
government;  thence  it  was  transferred  to  Philadel- 
phia ;  and  in  1800  it  was  removed  to  Washington 
City,  in  the  District  of  Columbia. 

209.  The  District  of  Columbia  was  formerly  ten 
miles  square,  given  to  the  United  States  in  1790, 
by  Maryland  and  Virginia,  for  the  purposes  of  a 
national  capital.     In  1800  it  became  the  seat  of  the 
general  government,  and  the  residence  of  the  pres- 
dent  and  other  chief  executive  officers  of  the  na- 
tion.    In  1846,  by  an  act  of  Congress,  the  part 
given  by  Virginia  was  restored  to  that  state;  con- 
sequently the  District  is  now  confined  to  the  Mary- 
land  side   of    the   Potomac,    and   contains   about 
seventy  square  miles. 

210.  In  the  fall  of  1796,  John  Adams,  the  nomi- 
nee of  the  Federalists,  was  elected  over  his  oppo- 
nent, Thomas  Jefferson. 

211.  Adams  was  a  native  of  Massachusetts.    He 
was  an  able  lawyer  and  a  good  writer. 

212.  Troubles  with  France,  death  of  Washing- 
ton, Dec.  14, 1799,  death  of  Patrick  Henry,  removal 


190        THE  NORMAL  QUESTION  BOOK. 

of  National  Capital  from  Philadelphia  to  Washing 
ton  City,  passing  of  the  Alien  and  Sedition  laws. 

213.  "Owing  to  the  violent  denunciations  of  the 
government  by  the  friends  and  emissaries  of  France, 
the  alien  and  sedition  laws  were  passed.     Under  the 
former,  the  president  could  expel  from  the  country 
any  foreigner  whom  he  deemed   injurious  to  the 
United  States ;  under  the  latter,  any  one  libelling 
Congress,  the  president  or  the  government,  could 
be  fined  or  imprisoned.     This  was  a  most  unpopu- 
lar measure,  and  excited  the  bitterest  feeling." 

214.  The  quarrel  between  the  two  great  political 
parties — the   Federalists    and   Republicans — grew 
more  and  more  bitter  as  the  presidential  election 
approached.     Adams  was  re-nominated  by  the  for- 
mer; Jefferson  was   the  candidate   of  the   latter, 
The  Republicans  triumphed.     Thomas  Jefferson, 
of  Virginia,  was  chosen  president,  and  Aaron  Burr, 
of  RT.Y.,  vice  president. 

215.  Thomas  Jefferson  was  a  ripe  scholar,  a  bold 
reformer,  the  founder  of  the  Republican  party,  and 
the  author  of  the  Declaration.     He  was  an  ardent 
supporter  of  the  doctrine  of  State  Rights,  and  led 
the  opposition  to  the  Federalists. 

216.  The  purchase  of  Louisiana,  from  France,  in 
1803,  for  $15,000,000  ;  war  with  Tripoli ;  the  Ham- 
ilton-Burr  duel,  July  11,  1804;  expedition  of  Lewis 
and  Clarke,  1804;  the  first  steamboat,  Robert  Ful- 
ton, 1807;  slave  trade  abolished,  1808. 


UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.          191 

217.  The  Republicans,    or    Democrats,    elected 
James  Madison  as  fourth  president,  and  on  March 
4,  1809,  he  was  duly  inaugurated.      He  was  re- 
elected  in  1812,  thus  serving  eight  years. 

218.  The  principal  events  were  a  war  ^ith  the 
Indians  of  the  Northwest,  and  the  second  War  with 
England,  usually  styled  "  The  War  of  1812." 

219.  British  emissaries  aroused  the  Indians  to 
war.     A  confederacy  of  the   northwestern   tribes 
was  formed  by  the  famous  chief  Tecumseh.     The 
war  was  terminated  by  General  Harrison's  victory 
at  the  battle  of  Tippecanoe,  Indiana,  Nov.  7,  1811. 

220.  For  a  seriea  of  years  England  had  oppressed 
American  commerce.     She  had,  besides,  haughtily 
seized  American  seamen  from  the  decks  of  Ameri- 
can vessels,  claiming  them  as  deserters  from  her 
flag.     It  was  no  longer  to  be  borne,  and  on  the 
19th  of  June,  1812,  President  Madison  published  a 
proclamation  of  war  against  England. 

221.  Naval  battle  between  the  Essex  (American) 
and  the  Alert  (British),  Aug.  13,  1812.     Com.  Por- 
ter commanded  Americans.    Americans  victorious. 
Surrender  of  Gen.  William  Hull  to  British,  Aug. 
15,  1812,  on  eve  of  battle.     Naval  battle  between 
Constitution   (American)  and  Guerriere  (British), 
August  19,  1812.     Captain  Isaac  Hull  commanded 
Americans;  Capt.  Dacres, the  British.     Americans 
victorious.     Battle  of  Freuchtown,  Jan.  22,  1813; 


192        THE  NORMAL  QUESTION  BOOK. 

Americans  defeated.  General  Winchester,  com- 
mander of  the  Americans ;  Gen.  Proctor,  the  Brit- 
ish. Naval  battle  between  the  Chesapeake  (Amer- 
ican) and  the  Shannon  (British),  Jan.  1,  1813. 
Capt.  Lawrence  commanded  Americans;  Captain 
Broke,  the  British.  Americans  defeated.  Naval 
battle  between  American  fleet  and  British  fleet,  on 
Lake  Erie,  September  10,  1813.  Com.  Perry  com- 
manded Americans;  Com.  Barclay,  the  British. 
Americans  victorious.  Battle  of  Lundy's  Lane, 
July  25,  1814;  Americans  victorious.  Gen.  Win- 
h'eld  Scott  commanded  Americans ;  Gen.  Riall,  the 
British.  Capture  of  Washington  City,  Aug.  24, 
1814,  by  the  British.  Gen.  Ross  burned  the  Cap- 
itol building.  Battle  of  New  Orleans,  Jan.  8,  1815 ; 
Americans  victorious.  Gen.  Jackson  commanded 
Americans ;  Gen.  Pakenham,  the  British. 

222.  A  treaty  of  peace  was  concluded  at  Ghent, 
December  24,  1814. 

223.  Not  a  word  was  said  in  the  treaty  about  op- 
pressions on  American  commerce,  nor  about  the 
right  of  search — the  two  causes  of  the  war. 

224.  In  the  presidential  election,  held  in  the  au- 
tumn of  1816,  James  Monroe,  of  Virginia,  was 
elected  b^  the  Republicans,  or  Democrats. 

225.  The  formation  of  the  Colonization  Society, 
the  construction  of  the  Erie  Canal,  war  with  the 
Seminole   Indians,  Florida   ceded   to   the   United 
States,  the  Monroe  doctrine,  LaFayette's  visit,  Mis- 


UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.          193 

sissippi,   Illinois,   Alabama,   Maine  and   Missouri 
admitted  into  the  Union,  the  Missouri  compromise. 

226.  In  one  of  President  Monroe's  messages,  he 
declared,  "  that  any  attempt  by  a  European  nation 
to  gain  dominion  in  America,  would  be  considered 
by  the  United  States  an  unfriendly  act." 

227.  When  the  admission  of  Missouri  was  pro- 
posed,  a   violent   debate   arose   on    the    question 
whether  it  should  be  a  slave  or  a  free  state.     It 
was   finally  arranged,  in   1820,  by  an   agreement 
known  as  the  Missouri  compromise,  that  Missouri 
might  come  in  as  a  slave  state,  but  that  slavery 
should  be  prohibited  in  all  other  territory  belong- 
ing to  the  United  States  west  of  the  Mississippi 
and  north  of  parallel  36°  30'. 

228.  The  great  party  which  had  twice  triumph- 
antly elected  Monroe,  was    now  divided  into  the 
Whig  party   and  the  Republican,  or  Democratic 
party.     The  Whigs  were  in  favor  of  a  protective 
tariff  and  a  general  system  of  internal  improve- 
ments; the  Democrats  opposed  them. 

229.  John  Quincy  Adams  and  Henry  Clay  were 
the  champions  of    the  Whigs;    Andrew  Jackson 
and  John  C.  Calhoun  of  the  Democrats. 

230.  No  one  receiving  a  majority  of  the  electoral 
votes,  the  election  went  to  the  House  of  Represent- 
atives, by  whom  John  Quincy  Adams  was  chosen. 


13 


194        THE  NORMAL  QUESTION  BOOK. 

231.  The  high  protective  tariff  of  1828 ;  deaths 
of  John   Adams  and  Thomas   Jefferson,  July   4, 
1826 ;  construction  of  the  first  railroad,  1827. 

232.  The  election  of  president  during  the  fall  of 
1828  ended  in  the  choice  of  General  Andrew  Jack- 
son, of  Tennefcsee,  the  hero  of  New  Orleans.     His 
election  was  considered  a  triumph  of  the  Demo- 
crats over  the  Whigs  and  the  protective  system. 

233.  Asiatic   cholera,   in   1832;    Black   Hawk's 
war;  new   tariff  law,   1832;   nullification   act   of 
South    Carolina;   removal  of  the   Cherokees;  the 
Texan  war;  great  fire  in  !N"ew  York  City,  Decem- 
ber 16, 1835 ;  Florida,  or  Seminole  war,  1835 ;  abo- 
lition  of  the   United    States   bank;   death  of  six 
eminent  men ;  admission  of  Arkansas  and  Louis- 
iana. 


234.  The  election  of  President  Van  Buren  was  a 
triumph  for  the  Democrats.     It  was  a  continuation 
of  Jackson's  policy. 

235.  The  "Panic  of  '37;"  the  Canadian  Rebel- 
lion ;  Passage  of  the  Sub-Treasury  Bill. 

236.  The  ninth  president  of  the  United  States  was 
William  Henry  Harrison,  of  Ohio. 

237.  The  election  of  President  Harrison  was  a 
triumph  of  the  Whig  party. 

238.  President  Harrison  had  been  just  a  month 
in  office  when  he  died. 


UNITED   STATES   HISTORY.  195 

239.  By   the   terms   of   the   constitution,   Vice- 
President   Tyler   succeeded   him  in   the  office  of 
president. 

240.  Ans.  No.  1.  Tyler  leaves  the  Whigs;  sub- 
treasury  bill  repealed;  resignation  of  the  president's 
cabinet;  boundary  of  Maine  settled  in  1842;  rebel- 
lion in  Rhode  Island;  annexation  of  Texas. 

Ans.  No.  2.  The  return  of  the  Wilkes's  Ex- 
ploring Expedition  ;  invention  of  the  sewing  ma- 
chine, by  Elias  Howe,  1853;  the  great  Mormon 
excitement  of  1844;  invention  of  the  magnetic  tel- 
egraph, by  F.  B.  Morse,  1837;  the  admission  of 
Florida,  Texas  and  Iowa. 

241.  The  Texan  question  was  the  main  issue  of 
the  campaign  of  1844 — the  Democrats  being  for, 
and  the  Whigs  against,  annexation. 

242.  Jas.  K.  Polk  was  the  Democratic  candidate, 
and  was  inaugurated  eleventh  president,  March  4, 
1845. 

243.  The  passage  of  the  resolutions  permitting 
Texas  to  join  the  Union   was  considered  by  the 
Mexicans  as  an  act  of  hostility.      Moreover  the 
western  boundary  of  Texas  was  in  dispute.     The 
Texans   claimed   the   country   as   far  as   the   Rio 
Grande,  while,  on  the  other  hand,  the  Mexicans 
contended  that  the  revolted  province  had   never 
spread  farther  westward  than  the  River  Nueces. 

244.  Battles  of  Palo  Alto  and  Resaca  delaPalma, 
May  8  and  9,  1846.     Capture  of  Monterey,  Sept. 


196        THE  NORMAL  QUESTION  BOOK. 

24,  1846,    Battle  of  Buena  Vista,  Feb.  23,  1847 
Capture  of  City  of  Mexico,  Sept.  14,  1847. 

245.  The  Americans  gained  every  battle. 

246.  Gens.  Taylor  and  Scott,  Americans;  Santa 
Anna,  the  Mexicans. 

247.  The  Mexican  war  was  formally  ended  by  the 
treaty  of  Guadaloupe  Hidalgo,  concluded  February 
2, 1848. 

248.  The  treaty  of  Guadaloupe  Hidalgo  ceded  to 
the  United  States  all  the  vast  territory  now  com- 
prised in  New  Mexico,  Utah,  and  California.     In 
return  Mexico  received  a  compensation  of  fifteen 
millions  of  dollars. 

249.  Smithsonian  Institution  established  in  April, 
1846;  northern  boundary  of  the  United  States  set- 
tled June,  1846  ;  gold  discovered  in  California  Feb- 
ruary, 1848;  Wisconsin  admitted  into  the  Union. 

kb 

250.  Both  political  parties  made  efforts  to  secure 
the  control  of  the  territory  acquired  by  the  war. 
For  this  purpose,  the  Wilmot  Proviso,  so  named 
from  its  author,  David  Wilmot,  of  Pennsylvania, 
Was  introduced  into  congress,  excluding   slavery 
from  the  whole  of  the  new  acquisitions.     It  was 
long  discussed,  but  finally  defeated. 

251.  In   the   campaign   of  1848,   three   distinct 
parties — the  Whigs,  the  Democrats,  and  the  Free- 
soil  ers— brought  out  candidates.    Taylor  was  nomi- 
nated by  the  Whigs ;  General  Lewis  Cass,  of  Michi- 


UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.          197 

gan,  by  the  Democrats,  and  Martin  Van  Buren  by 
the  Free-soilers. 

252.  They  held  that  Congress   should   prohibit 
the  introduction  of  slavery  into  the  territories. 

253.  Zachary  Taylor. 

254.  When  sixteen  months  had  elapsed,  Presi- 
dent Taylor's  administration  was  abruptly  closed 
by  his  death,  which  occurred,  after  a  brief  illness, 
on  the  9th  of  July,  1850. 

255.  The  Vice  President,  Millard  Fillmore,  of 
New  York,  now  became  chief  magistrate. 

256.  Admission  of  California,  September  9, 1850; 
the  passage  of  the  " omnibus  bill ;"  Cuban  "fili- 
bustering;" deaths  of  John  C.  Calhoun,  March  31, 
1850,  Henry  Clay,  June  28, 1852,  Daniel  Webster, 
October  24, 1852. 

257.  California  formed  a  constitution  and  applied 
to  Congress  for  admission  into  the  Union  as  a  free 
state.     Her  admission  was  opposed  by  the  southern 
leaders,  and  for  several  months  a  hot  discussion  was 
carried  on  within  the  walls  of  Congress. 

258.  The  measures  devised  by  Clay,  known  as 
the  "  omnibus  bill,  or  compromise  of  1850,"  passed 
Congress  in  September. 

259.  It  provided,  1st.  For  the  admission  of  Cali- 
fornia as  a  free  state;  2d.  For  organizing  territorial 
governments  in  Utah  and  New  Mexico,  without 
any  provision  for  or  against  slavery;  3d.  Forestab- 


198        THE  NORMAL  QUESTION  BOOK. 

lishing  the  boundary  of  Texas,  as  at  present,  and 
paying  that  state  ten  millions  of  dollars  to  relin- 
quish all  claim  to  additional  territory;  4th.  For 
prohibiting,  not  slavery,  but  the  slave  trade  in  the 
District  of  Columbia;  5th.  For  the  enactment  of  a 
fugitive  slave  law,  to  enable  masters  to  recover 
their  slaves  escaping  to  a  free  state. 

260.  The  question  at  issue  was  the  compromise 
act  of  1850. 

261.  The  candidates  were  Franklin  Pierce,  of 
New    Hampshire,    representing    the    Democratic 
party;  Gen.  Winfield  Scott,  representing theWhigs ; 
and  John  P.  Hale,  of  New  Hampshire,  the  Free- 
soil  ers. 

262.  Pierce   was   elected  by   a  large   majority, 
Scott  receiving  the  vote  of  only  three  States. 

263.  The  Gadsden  Purchase ;  the  World's  Fair, 
at  New  York,  July  14,1853;  the  treaty  with  Japan; 
commencement  of  the  Pacific  Railroad ;  the  Kan- 
sas-Nebraska bill;  assault  on  Charles  Sumner. 

264.  The  United  States  acquired  27,000  square 
miles  of  territory  south  of  the  Gila  (her  lah)  river, 
by  paying  Mexico  $10,000,000.     This  transaction 
is  known  as  the  Gadsden  purchase. 

265.  In  1853  Stephen  A.  Douglas  introduced  the 
famous  Kansas-Nebraska  Bill,  organizing  the  Ter- 
ritories of  Kansas  and  Nebraska,  and  giving  the 
inhabitants  of  each  territory  the  right  to  decide  for 
themselves,  whether  the  State  should  be  admitted 
free  or  slave. 


UNITED  STATES  HISTORT.  193 

266.  This  doctrine   was  called  "squatter  sove- 
reignty." 

267.  As  it  was  a  repudiation  of  the  Missouri 
compromise,  it  caused  violent  and  intense  feeling. 

268.  It  became  a  law  in  1854. 

269.  It  brought  about  a  "border  warfare"  be* 
tween  pro-slavery  and  anti-slavery  men. 

270.  The  Know-Nothings,  or  Americans. 

271.  It  entertained  the  principle  that  America 
should  be  ruled  by  Americans  and  opposed  the  in- 
fluence of  foreigners. 

272.  The  Free-soil  Democrats  organized  a  new 
party  styled  "Republicans." 

273.  The'  Democrats  were  in   favor   of  letting 
slavery  extend  wherever  it  found  its  way  by  the 
voice  of  the  people. 

274.  In  the  election  of  1856  the  Know-Nothings 
supported  ex-President  Fillmore ;  the  Republicans, 
John  C.  Fremont;   and  the  Democrats,  James  Bu- 
chanan.    Buchanan  was  elected. 

275.  The  "Dred  Scott"  decision;  trouble  with 
the  Mormons;  John  Brown's  raid;  Oregon,  Kan- 
sas and  Minnesota  admitted  into  the  Union. 

276.  This  decision,  which  was  delivered  by  Chief 
Justic  Taney,  declared  the  Missouri  Compromise 
unconstitutional;  that  the  constitution  gave  slave- 
owners the  right  to  hold  their  slaves  in  the  terri- 
tories, and  that  neither  negro  slaves  nor  their  dee- 


200        THE  NORMAL  QUESTION  BOOK. 

cendants,  slave  or  free,  could  become  citizens  of 
the  United  States. 

277.  Four.  Abraham  Lincoln,  the  candidate  of 
the  Republican  party  was  elected. 

278.  When  it  became  known  that  the  party  op« 
posed  to  the  further  extension  of  slavery  had  been 
successful,  and  that  Lincoln   would  be   the   next 
president,  public  meetings  were  held  in  South  Car- 
olina to  bring  about  a  secession  of  that  State  from 
the  Union;  and,  on  the  20th  of  December,  1860,  an 
ordinance  of  secession  was  passed  by  a  state  con- 
vention held  in  Charleston. 

279.  Janua:y,  1861,  five  of  the  slave  states — Mis- 
sissippi, Florida,  Alabama,  Georgia  and  Louisiana, 
passed  secession  ordinances;  and,   on  the  first  of 
February,  Texas  did  the  same. 

280.  On  the  fourth  of  February,  1861,  a  congress 
composed  of  delegates  from  all  these  States,  except 
Texas,  met  at  Montgomery;  and  four  days  after, 
organized  a  government  by  the  adoption  of  a"  pro- 
visional  constitution,"   assuming  the  title  of  the 
"Confederate  States  of  America." 

281.  (1)  The  difference  in  habits   and   pursuits 
had  tended  to  weaken  the  bonds  of  common  an- 
cestry. 

(2)  Different  opinions  of  the  nature  of  the  gov- 
ernment, whether  it  was  an  indivisible  union  or  a 
mere  compact  of  states, — had  existed  since  the  days 
of  Washington. 

(3)  It  had  long  been  foreseen  that  the  balance 
ef  political  power,  which   was   steadily   moving 


UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.          201 

northward,   would   at   some   time   overthrow   the 
southern  rule. 

(4)  The  failure  of  the  Missouri  Compromise, 
which  had  preserved  peace  for  forty  years,  revived 
the  earlier  threats  of  disunion. 

(5)  The  tariff,  resulting   in  nullification,  was 
seen  to  favor  the  manufacturing  North  at  the  ex- 
pense of  the  cotton  growing  South. 

(6)  Little  intercourse  between  the  two  sections 
led  to  jealousy  and  suspicion,  till  they  looked  upon 
each  other  almost  as  separate  nationalities. 

(7)  The  publication  of  sectional  books,  whose 
popularity  depended  on  the  animosity  between  the 
two  sections,  were  generally  filled  with  ridicule  and 
falsehood,  and  did  much  to  embitter  the  sectional 
hatred. 

(8)  The  slavery  question;  especially  as  involved 
in  the  annexation  of  Texas,  the  fugitive  slave  law, 
the  "Dred  Scott  Decision,"  the  Kansas  struggle,  the 
John  Brown  raid — these,  all  these  tended  to  alien- 
ate the  sympathies  of  the  people,  and,  in  the  ex- 
citements of  the  passing  hour,  made  them  forget 
common  interests  and  their  common  struggles  for 
independence.     The  gates  of  war  were  opened. 

282.  President  Lincoln's  inaugural  message  was 
full  of  expressions  of  good- will  to  the  South,  urging 
obedience  to  the  laws,  and  affirming  that  he  "had 
no  lawful  right,"  and  "  no  inclination  »  to  interfere 
with  slavery;  that  secession  meant  anarchy;  and 
that,  if  war  should  arise,  the  South  would  be  the 
aggressors. 


202         THE  NORMAL  QUESTION  BOOK. 

283.  The  first  gun  of  the  war  was  fired  at  Fort 
Sumter,  South  Carolina,  at  half-past  four  o'clock, 
Friday  morning,  April  12,  1861. 

284.  This  "  strange  contest  between  seventy  men 
and  seven  thousand,"  lasted  for  thirty-four  hours, 
no  one  being  hurt  on  either  side. 

285.  A  regiment  of  Massachusetts  militia,  hurry- 
ing to  the  defense  of  the  national  capital,  was  at- 
tacked in  the  streets  of  Baltimore,  and  several  men 
were  killed.     Thus  the  first  blood  shed  in  the  civil 
war  was  April  19,  1861. 

286.  The  Confederate  flag,  the  "  stars  and  bars," 
was  conspicuously  displayed    everywhere   in    the 
south;  the  "stars  and  stripes"  everywhere  in  the 
north. 

287.  The  eleven  states  that  formed  the  Southern 
Confederacy,  were:    South   Carolina,   Mississippi, 
Alabama,  Florida,  Georgia,  Louisiana,  Texas,  Vir- 
ginia, Arkansas,  Forth  Carolina,  Tennessee. 

288.  Bull  Run,  Virginia,  July  21,  1861 ;  Cedar 
Mountain,  Virginia,  August  9,  1862 ;  Second  Bull 
Run,  Virginia,  August  29,  1862 ;  Harper's  Ferry, 
Virginia,    September    15,   1862;    Fredericksburg, 
Virginia,  December  13,  1862;  Chancellorsville,  Vir- 
ginia, May  2  and  3,  1863;  Chickamauga,  Georgia, 
September  19  and  20, 1863 ;  Cold  Harbor,  Virginia, 
June  3,  1864. 

289.  Rich  Mountain,  Va.,  July  11,  1861;  Fort 
Henry,  Tenn.,  Feb.  6,  1862;  Fort  Donelson,Tenn., 
Feb.   16,  1862;  Pea  Ridge,  Mo.,  March  6,   1862; 
Merrimac  and  Monitor,  Va.,  March  9,  1862;  Few 


UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.          203 

Orleans,  La.,  April  28,  1862;  Murfreesboro',  Tenn., 
Dec.  31,  1862;  Vicksburg,  July  4,  1863;  Gettys- 
burg, Pa.,  July  1st  and  3d,  1863;  Chattanooga, 
Tenn.,  Nov.  23  and  24,  1863;  Alabama  and  Kear- 
sarge,  naval  battle,  June  15,  1864;  Lost  Mountain, 
Ga.,  June  15  and  17,  1864;  Atlanta,  Ga.,  Sept.  2, 
1864 •,  second  battle  Cedar  Creek,  Ya.,  October  19, 
1864;  Nashville, Tenn., December  15  and  16,  1864; 
Petersburg  and  Richmond,  Va.,  April  2,  1865. 

290.  Indecisive  battles  of  the  war :  Shiloh,  Tenn., 
April  6,  1862;  Fair  Oaks,  Va.,  May  31,  1862;  Sav- 
age Station,  Va.,  June  29,  1862;  Frazier's  Farm, 
Va.,  June  30,  1862;  Antietam,  Md.,  Sept.  17, 1862; 
Perryville,  Ky.,  Oct.  8, 1862  ;  Wilderness,  Va.,  May 
5  and  6,  1864;  Spottsylvania,  Va.,  May  8  and  12, 
1864. 

291.  The  surrender  of  Lee^s  Army  at  Appomat- 
tox  court-house,  April  9,  1865. 

292.  The  assassination  of  President  Lincoln. 

293.  Vice  President  Johnson. 

294.  The  reconstruction  of  the  Secession  States. 

295.  The  Amnesty  proclamation;  tenure  of  office 
bill;  impeachment  of  the  president,  laying  of  the 
Atlantic  cable;  purchase  of  Russian  America. 

Also,  the  13th  amendment  to  the  constitution; 
the  civil  rights  bill  passed ;  the  Fenian  raid ;  trouble 
with  Mexico  and  France;  Nebraska  admitted;  se- 


204        THE  NORMAL  QUESTION  BOOK. 

ceded   states  re-admitted;  fourteenth   amendment 
adopted;  Indian  war;  treaty  with  China,  1868. 

296.  1,000,000  men  were  destroyed  on  both  sides; 
and  the  money  paid  out  for  the  war  was  more  than 
$4,000,000,000. 

297.  U.  S.  Grant. 

298.  Building  of  the  Pacific  Railroad;  adoption 
of  the  15th  amendment;  the  9th  census  taken;  the 
Alabama  claims  settled;  the  burning  of  Chicago 
in  1871. 

299.  Great  fire   in   Boston,  November  9,  1872; 
the  Modoc  war;  the  great  financial  panic  of  1873; 
1873,  the  year  of  epidemics  ;  troubles  with  Spain  ; 
visit    of    the    Grand    Duke    Alexis,    of    Russia ; 
troubles  in  Louisiana  during  1873  and  1874;  visit 
of  King  Kalakaua,  of  the  Sandwich  Islands,  Pacific 
Ocean,  1875;  Colorado  admitted,  1876;  deaths  of 
Edwin  M.  Stan  ton,  December,  1869,  General  Rob- 
ert E.  Lee,  General  George  H.  Thomas  and  Ad- 
miral Farragut  in  1870,  William  H.  Seward,  Prof. 
Morse,  Horace  Greeley  and  General  Meade  in  1872, 
Chief  Justice  Chase  in  1873,  Senator  Charles  Suni- 
ner  in  1874,  Ex-President  Andrew  Johnson,  John 
C.  Breckinridge  and  Vice-President  Henry  Wilson 
in  1875;  the  Custar  slaughter,  1876;  the  Center 
nial  Exhibition   at  Philadelphia  from  May   10  to 
November  10,  1876;  visit  of  Dom  Pedro,  Emperor 
of  Brazil,  1876. 

300.  Rutherford  B.  Hayes. 

301.  The  electoral  tribunal;  troubles  in  Louisia"* 
and  South  Carolina. 


UNITED    STATES    HISTORY. 

302.  A  large  element  in  the  party  were  not  sat- 
isfied with  his  policy  of  conciliation  toward  the 
South.     They  believed  that,  if  the  electoral  vote 
had  been  legally  cast  for  him  as  President,   it 
must  also   have  been  cast  for  the  Republican 
State  officers,  and  that  it  was  the  duty  of  the 
President  to  protect  those  officers,  by  the  pres- 
ence of  United  States  troops  at  the  State  capitals. 

303.  The   Republicans    nominated    James   A. 
Garfield  and  Chester  A.  Arthur.     The  Democrats 
nominated  Winfield  S.  Hancock  and  William  H. 
English.    The  Greenback-Labor  party  nominated 
James  B.  Weaver  and  Benjamin  J.  Chambers. 

304.  March  4,  1881. 

305.  The  Star  Route  frauds,  whereby  contracts 
in  the  West  for  carrying  the  mails  were  so  ma- 
nipulated that  great  wrongs  and  robberies  were 
perpetrated.     Within  two  months  contracts  to 
the  amount  of  nearly  $2,000,000  were  annulled. 
The  alleged  conspirators  were  tried,  but  judg- 
ment was  never  rendered  against  them. 

306.  On  the  morning  of  July  2,  1881,  by  Charles 
J.   Guiteau,   at  a  railway  station  in  Washing- 
ton, D.  C. 

307.  Immediately  on  being  informed  of  the 
President's  death  he  took  the  oath  of  office. 

308.  It  was  passed  in  1883,  and  aimed  to  regu- 
late appointments  and  promotions  in  the  civil 
service  of  the  United  States  by  means  of  exami- 
nations, instead  of  political  preferment. 

309.  October  1,  1883. 

310.  In  1884  a  bill  was  approved  by  which  a 
governor,  judge,  marshal  and  other  officers  were 


THE   NORMAL    QUESTION   BOOK. 

to  be  appointed  for  a  term  of  four  years,  but  no 
legislative  assembly  or  congressional  delegate 
was  authorized.  Sitka  was  made  the  temporary 
seat  of  government. 

311.  It  was  forbidden,  by  a  law  passed  in  1882, 
for  ten  years. 

312.  The  Democrats  nominated  Grover  Cleve- 
land and   Thomas  A.  Hendricks.     The  Repub- 
licans, James  G.  Elaine  and  John  A.  Logan.     The 
Greenback-Labor  party,  B.  F.  Butler  and  A.  M. 
West.     The  Prohibitionists,  John  P.    St.  John 
and  •William  Daniel. 

313.  Grover  Cleveland. 

314.  Tne  Haymarket  riot  in  Chicago,  May  3. 
The  riot  of  Milwaukee,  May  6.    The  earthquake 
of  Charleston.    The  conviction  of  eight  anarchists 
in  Chicago.     The  rise  of  the  Knights  of  Labor  to 
prominence.     Great  gales  off  the  coast  of  Texas, 
and  wrecks  on   Lakes  Michigan  and  Superior. 
The  unveiling  of  the  statue  of  "  Liberty  Enlight- 
ening the  World,"  in  New  York  Harbor. 

315.  The  Interstate  Commerce  Act.      It  was 
signed  by  the  President,  February  4,  1887. 

316.  The  Retaliation  Act,  which  placed  in  the 
hands  of  the  President  the  power  to  prohibit  the 
importation  of  the  products  of  the  Canadian 
fisheries,  or  if  necessary  to  suspend  all  commerce 
with  Canada  until   the  differences  between  the 
United  States  and  that  country  were  settled. 

317.  The  Republicans  elected  Benjamin  Harri- 
son President  and  Levi  P.  Morton  Vice-Presi- 
dent.     The  election  was  exciting  and  majorities 
in  the  doubtful  States  small. 


UNITED    STATES    HISTORY. 

318.  Secretary  of  Agriculture. 

319.  An    act    by     which   North    and    South 
Dakota,  Washington,   and    Montana   were   ad- 
mitted as  States. 

320.  The  centenary  of  the  first  inauguration  of 
Washington  as  President  of  the  United  States. 

321.  Some  American  sailors  were  murderously 
attacked  in  the  streets  of  Valparaiso  by  a  Chilian 
mob.     Our  government  demanded  reparation  in 
damages  and  an  apology,  under  pain   of  war. 
Chili  was  just  coming  out  of  a  civil  war  of  her 
own,  and  for  reasons  of  domestic  policy  held 
back  a  little,  but  succumbed  just  as  the  period 
fixed  in  the  American  ultimatum  was  expiring. 

322.  The    "  McKinley  Law,"  so  called,   made 
important  changes  in  the  tariff,  generally  in  the 
direction  of  an  increase  in  the  rate  of  protective 
duties.     The  "  Sherman  Act"  was  a  law  repeal- 
ing the  "  Bland  Act,"  and  requiring  the  govern- 
ment to  purchase  monthly  4,500,000  ounces  of 
silver  bullion  at  the  market  price  and  coin  a  part 
of  it  into  standard  dollars. 

323.  Its  opponents  declared  that  the  operation 
of  the  "McKinley  Law"   resulted  in  a  general 
advance  in   the  cost  of  living.     Its  supporters 
claimed  that  it  increased  the  general  prosperity. 

324.  The  Democrats  elected  Grover  Cleveland 
President  and  Adlai  E.  Stevenson  Vice-President. 
The  campaign  was  notable  for  the  absence  of 
much  of  the  usual  excitement.      The  general 
verdict  appeared  to  be  against  a  continuance  of 
the  high  protective  rates  of  the  McKinley  Tariff. 

325.  The  World's  Columbian  Exposition,  held 


204$  THE    NORMAL    QUESTION    BOOK. 

at  Chicago,  commemorating  the  400th  anniversary 
of  the  discovery  of  America  by  Columbus. 

326.  (a)    President   Cleveland   convened    Con- 
gress in  extra  session  in  August  to  consider  the 
alarming  financial  depression  which  had  recently 
set  in.     This  session  ended  with  the  repeal  of  the 
silver-purchase  clause  of  the  "  Sherman  Act"  of 
1890.     (b)  A  dispute  between   this  country  and 
England  concerning  the  seal  industry  in  the  Ber- 
ing Sea,  which  had  been  assuming  a  threatening 
aspect,   was  amicably  settled  by  international 
arbitration. 

327.  A    protracted    discussion    by    Congress 
(Democratic)  resulted    in    the   enactment  of   a 
revised    tariff     law    repealing    the    duties    on 
imported    wools,     and    other    important     raw 
materials,    reducing    duties    on    many    manu- 
factured or  partly  manufactured  articles. 

328.  A  strike  of  railroad  employees  at  Chicago 
assumed  an  almost  revolutionary  character  by 
reason  of  violence,   incendiarism,   and    general 
lawlessness.       President      Cleveland      ordered 
United  States  troops  to  the  scene  of  the  trou- 
bles, thus  terminating  the  episode. 

329.  The  general  question  of  the  settlement 
by    arbitration    of    all    differences    with    other 
nations.     A  disput.6  between  Great  Britain  and 
Venezuela  concerning  the  boundary  line  between 
Venezuela  and  British  Guiana,  drew  forth  from 
President  Cleveland  a  sharp  protest,    coupled 
with   an   intimation    that    our  government,    in 
support  of  the    "Monroe  Doctrine,"  would,  if 
necessary,     go    to     war.       After    considerable 


UNITED    STATES    HISTORY 

diplomatic  correspondence  it  was  agreed  to 
submit  the  Venezuelan  boundary  question  to 
arbitration,  which  our  government  pronounced 
satisfactory. 

380.  The  Republicans  elected  William  McKin- 
ley President  and  Garret t  A.  Hobart  Vice- 
President  with  a  working  majority  in  the  House 
of  Representatives,  on  platform  declarations 
assuring  the  maintenance  of  the  existing  gold 
standard  in  our  currency.  The  Democrats  had 
demanded  the  unlimited  free  coinage  of  silver  at 
the  current  ratio  of  16  to  1.  Next  to  the  coinage 
question  the  most  important  issue  of  the 
campaign  was  that  of  the  duties  on  imports, 
McKinley  representing  those  who  desired  higher 
tariffs  as  a  protection  to  domestic  industries. 

331.  The  calling  of  an  extra  session  of  Congress 
in  March,  1897,  for  the  enactment  of  a  new  pro- 
tective tariff,  styled  the  "  Dingley  Act"  in  honor 
of  Representative  Dingley  of  Maine,  its  author. 
The  act  was  signed  July  24,  1898. 

332.  The   Senate  rejected  a  general  treaty  of 
arbitration    between    Great    Britain    and    the 
United  States. 

333.  No.  A  treaty  with  the  republic  of  Hawaii, 
for  its  annexation  to  the  United  States,  was  sent 
in  by  President  McKinley,  but  went  over  till  the 
regular  session   the  following  winter  and  then 
failed. 

334.  It  made  it  necessary  to  effect  the  annex- 
ation by  joint  resolution  as  in  the  case  of  Texas. 
This  was  finally  accomplished  in   the  summer 
of  1898. 


204f  THE    NORMAL    QUESTION   BOOK. 

335.  The  enactment  of  the  Greater  New  York 
Law  by  the  State  Legislature,  uniting  Brooklyn, 
Staten  Island,  and  other  adjacent  territory  with. 
New  York   City  proper,   and  raising  it  to  the 
second  rank,  as  to  both  area  and  population, 
among  the  cities  of  the  world.     The  consolidation 
went  into  effect  January  1,  1898. 

336.  A     bankruptcy     law ;     resolutions     de- 
claring  Cuba    free,    and    thus    bringing    about 
a  war  with   Spain;    and  the    "War   Revenue 
Act." 

337.  Actual  hostilities  began   April  21,  1898, 
with  the  severance  of  diplomatic  intercourse,  and 
ended  August  12,   1898,  with  the  signing  of  a 
peace  protocol  at  Washington. 

338.  The  battle  of  Manila  Bay,  on  May  1,  in 
which    Admiral    Dewey    destroyed    the    entire 
Spanish  fleet  in  Philippine  waters  ;  the  sea-fight 
off  the  mouth  of  the  harbor  of  Santiago,  Cuba, 
July  3,  when  the  ships  under  Admirals  Schley 
and  Sampson  destroyed  the  fleet  of  the  Spanish 
Admiral  Cervera ;   the  battles  incidental  to  the 
capture    of    Santiago,    between    June     24    and 
July  17,  and  the  battle  which  ended  the  siege  of 
Manila  and  brought  about  its  surrender,  was 
fought  just  before  the  news  of  the  peace  negotia- 
tions reached  the  Philippines. 

339.  The  sinking  of  the  collier  Merrimac,  in 
the  narrowest  part  of  the  entrance  to  the  harbor 
of  Santiago,  to  blockade  the  harbor.     This  was 
accomplished    by    Naval    Constructor    Hobson, 
with  a  picked  crew  of  seven  men,  at  night,  under 
fire    of   the    Spanish   shore   batteries.     Colonel 


tJNITED    STATES    HISTORY.  204<7 

Funston's  bravery  in  the  Philippines  was  also 
especially  notable. 

340.  The  state  of  disquietude  in  the  United 
States  caused  by  the  long  and  bloody  war  car- 
ried on  by  the   Spanish  army  in  Cuba  in  its 
attempt  to  put  down  the  rebellion  there.     The 
acme  of  outraged  sentiment  in  the  United  States 
was  reached  when,  on  February  15,  the  Ameri- 
can   battleship    Maine  was    destroyed    in    the 
harbor  of  Havana  by  a  mysterious  explosion, 
causing  the  death  of  264  American  officers  and 
seamen. 

341.  The  cession  of  Porto  Rico  by  Spain  to 
the  United  States  ;  the  evacuation  of  that  island 
and  of  Cuba;  the  renunciation  of  Spanish  sover- 
eignty in  Cuba;  and  the  reference  of  the  future 
disposal  of  the  Philippine  Islands  to  an  inter- 
national conference  or  Peace  Commission. 

342.  Senators  Davis,  Frye,  and  Gray;  William 
R.  Day,  late  Secretary  of  State,  and  Whitelaw 
Reid  of  New  York.     The  sessions  of  the  con- 
ference were  held  at  Paris. 

343.  It  provided  for  the  issue  of  bonds  to  raise 
money  for  carrying  on  the  war,  and  for  a  far- 
reaching  system  of  internal  taxation  to  supply 
the  means  for  meeting  the  principal  and  interest 
of  the  debt  thus  created  and  supply  the  govern- 
ment with  additional  revenue. 

344.  That  Spain  should  give  up  all  her  remain- 
ing possessions  in  the  Western  Hemisphere,  as 
forecast  by  the  protocol,  and  cede  to  the  United 
States  the  Philippine  Archipelago  in  considera- 
tion of  the  payment  of  $20,000,000  by  the  United 


204&  THE   NORMAL   QUESTION   BOOK. 

States,  and  also  the  island  of  Guam  in  the 
Ladrones;  and  that  each  government  should 
relinquish  all  its  own  claims  for  indemnity,  and 
those  of  its  citizens  or  subjects,  growing  out  of 
the  Cuban  War.  The  treaty  contained  also 
£ome  provisions  securing  especially  favorable 
commercial  privileges  to  Spain  in  her  late  pos- 
sessions transferred  to  the  United  States. 

345.  On  April  11,  1899,  when  the  ratifications 
of  the  treaty  by  the  two  nations  were  exchanged 
at  the  Executive  Mansion  in  Washington. 

346.  The  struggle  over  ratification  had  been 
very  fierce,  a  large  number  of  senators  objecting 
to  the  assumption  of  sovereignty  by  the  United 
States    Government    in    the    Philippines.       On 
February  4,   1899,   after  the  6th  had  been  fixed 
as  the  date  for  the  final  vote,  the  Filipino  insur- 
gent army,   under  General  Emilio  Aguinaldo, 
opened  fire  upon  the  American  army  in  the  out- 
posts of  Manila.     This  was  obviously  done  for 
the  purpose  of  emphasizing  the  demand  of  the 
Filipinos  for  independence  as  opposed  to  an- 
nexation to  the  United   States.     It  seemed  to 
have  an  effect  the  reverse  of  what  was  intended. 
Some  of  the  senators  who  had  been  inclined  to 
listen  to  the  plea  of  the  Filipinos  now  declared 
that  this  violence  must  be  punished.     When  the 
vote  was  taken  on  February  6,  it  stood  57  to  27, 
or  one  more  than  the  requisite  two-thirds  in 
favor  of  the  treaty. 

347.  Yes.     A  joint    commission    representing 
Great  Britain,   Canada,  and  the  United  States, 
which  met  in  Washington  in  the  fall  of  1898, 


UNITED   STATES    HISTORY.  205 

suspended  its  sessions  for  a  time  in  the  follow- 
ing spring  because,  in  considering  the  various 
subjects  which  had  caused  irritation  between  the 
United  States  and  the  other  countries  involved, 
it  could  not  reach  a  satisfactory  agreement  on 
a  boundary  line  between  Alaska  and  the  British 
possessions  in  the  American  Northwest.  In 
Samoa,  also,  trouble  has  grown  out  of  the  tri- 
partite system  of  government,  the  British  and 
American  representatives  espousing  the  cause  of 
Malietoa,  one  of  the  claimants  to  the  Samoan 
throne,  while  the  German  representatives  sided 
with  his  rival,  Mataafa.  The  dissension  became 
so  violent  that  Eear  Admiral  Kautz  of  the 
United  States  Navy  was  sent  to  Apia  with  a 
suitable  force  and  was  obliged  to  do  some  fight- 
ing with  the  natives  of  Mataafa's  faction. 


206  UNITED    STATES    HISTORY. 


ANSWERS   TO   MISCELLANEOUS   QUESTIONS. 

302.  Washington,  Jefferson,  Madison,   Monroe, 
lackson  and  Grant. 

303.  Harrison,  Taylor,  Lincoln  and  Garfield. 
394.  Madison  was  president  during  the  war  of 

1812;  Polk  was  president  during  the  Mexican  war; 
viincoln  was  president  during  the  civil  war. 

305.  John  Adams  and  John  Quincy  Adams. 

306.  The  old  Republican  party,  as  opposed  to  the 
Federalists,  elected  Jefferson  and  Madison. 

307.  Jackson,  Van  Buren,  Polk,  Pierce  and  Bu- 
chanan. 

308.  Lincoln,  Grant,  Hayes  and  Garfield. 

309.  Washington  and  Monroe. 

310.  Benjamin  Franklin,  inventor  of  the  light- 
ning-rod, 1752. 

Eli  Whitney,  inventor  of  the  cotton  gin,  1793. 

Thomas  Blanchard,  inventor  of  the  tack  ma- 
chine, 1806. 

Robert  Fulton,  inventor  of  the  steamboat,  1807. 

Jethro  Wood,  inventor  of  the  modern  cast- 
iron  plow,  1819. 

Ross  Winans,  inventor  of  the  railroad  passen- 
ger car,  1828. 

Samuel  F.  B.  Morse,  inventor  of  the  electric 
telegraph,  1837. 

Charles  Goodyear,  inventor  of  vulcanized  rub- 
ber, 1839. 

Elias  Howe,  inventor  of  the  sewing  machine, 
1843. 

Cyrus  McCormick,  inventor  of  the  harvesting 
machine,  1845. 


THE  NORMAL  QUESTION  BOOK.          207 

James  Lyall,  inventor  of  the  positive  motion 
ioonx,  1868. 

James  B.  Eads,  originator  and  constructor  of 
the  great  steel  bridge  over  the  Mississippi  at  St. 
Louis,  1867;  and  of  the  jetties  below  New  Orleans, 
1876. 

Graham  Bell,  inventor  of  the  telephone,  1877. 

Thomas  A.  Edison,  inventor  of  the  talking 
phonograph  and  electric  light,  1877-78. 

311.  Benjamin  Franklin. 

312.  Jonathan  Edwards. 

313.  Joseph  E.  Worcester  and  Noah  Webster. 

314.  Bowditch  and  Rittenhouse. 

315.  The  Andubons  and  Agassiz. 

#16.  Irving,  Brown,  Hawthorne  and  Fenimore 
£/70per. 

317.  Sparks,  Bancroft,  Hildreth,  Lossing,  Pres- 
cott,  Motley,  Head  ley  and  Irving. 

318.  Halleck,    Foe,    Willis,    Whittier,    Lowell, 
Longfellow,  Bryant,  Freneau  and  Dana. 

319.  William   Cullen   Bryant,  Horace   Greeley, 
James  Gordon  Bennett,  Sr. 

320.  Powers,    Greenough,    Story,    and  Harriet 
Hosmer. 

321.  West,  Copley,  Page,  Stuart,  Trumbull  and 
Sully. 

322.  Webster,  Clay,  Everett,  Calhoun  and  Sum. 
ner. 

323.  The  territory  of  the  United  States,  at  the 
close  of  the  Revolution,  was  bounded  as  follows : 

On  the  north  by  the  Great  Lakes,  on  the  east 
by  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  on  the  south  by  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico,  and  on  the  west  by  the  Mississippi  river; 


208  UNITED    STATES    HISTORY. 

but  from  the  region  lying  within  this  boundary, 
the  Spanish  province  of  Florida  and  that  part  of 
the  present  State  of  Louisiana  which  lies  east  of 
the  Mississippi  river,  must  he  excluded,  in  defining 
the  original  domain  of  the  IT.  S. 

324.  In  1787,  the  region  north  of  the  Ohio  river 
was  organized  under  the  name  of  the  Northwest 
Territory. 

325.  From  this  territory  five  states  have  been 
formed,  as  follows:    Ohio,   in    1802;    Indiana,  in 
1816;  Illinois,  in  1818;    Michigan,  in  1837;  and 
Wisconsin,  in  1848. 

326.  The  region  south  of  the  Ohio  was  generally 
called  the  Southwest  Territory. 

327.  From  it  have  been   formed  the  following 
states:    Kentucky,  in   1792;  Tennessee,  in  1796; 
Mississippi,  in  1817;  and  Alabama,  in  1819. 

328.  No. 

329.  Louisiana,  in  1812  ;  Missouri,  in  1821  ;  Ar- 
kansas, in  1836 ;  Iowa,  in  1846 ;  Minnesota,  in  1858 ; 
Oregon,  in  1859 ;  Kansas,  in  1861 ;  Nebraska,  in 
1867 ;  Colorado,  in  1876 ;  Washington  territory, 
organized  in  1853  ;  Dakotah  territory,  organized  in 
1861 ;  Idaho  territory,  organized  in  1863 ;  Montana 
territory,  organized  in  1863  ;  Wyoming  territory, 
organized  in  1868  ;  Indian  territory. 

330.  Texas  at  one  time  was  a  part  of  Mexico, 
but  becoming  dissatisfied  with  the  government,  re- 
volted in  1836,  and  set  up  an  independent  govern- 
ment.    In  1845  Texas  was  annexed  to  the  United 
States. 

331.  "  Let  us  remember  that  the  real  glory  of  a 
nation  comes  not  from  riches  or  power,  or  lands  of 
vast  extent,  but  from  the  love  of  right  and  truth." 


PHYSIOLOGY.  209 


QUESTIONS  ON  PHYSIOLOGY. 


1.  Illustrate  the  value  of  physiological  knowl- 
edge. 

2.  Into  what  two  bodies  is  the  kingdom  of  na- 
ture divided? 

3.  Define  organic  bodies. 

4.  What  does  this  division  include? 

5.  Define  inorganic  bodies. 

6.  What  does  this  division  include? 

7.  What  is  the  distinction  between  organic  and 
inorganic  matter  ? 

8.  In  what  conditions  may  we  study  organized 
matter? 

9.  What  science  is  derived  from  the  first,  and 
what  from  the  second  method? 

10.  Give  a  full  and  complete  definition  of  phys- 
iology. 

11.  Define  anatomy. 

12.  How  are  anatomy  and  physiology  divided  ? 

13.  How  are  animal  anatomy  and  physiology  di- 
rided  ? 

14.  Define  comparative  anatomy  and  physiology. 

15.  To  what  are  human  anatomy  and  physiology 
limited  in  their  application  ? 

14 


210  THE  NORMAL    QUESTION   BOOK. 

16.  How  are  plants  nourished? 

17.  How  are  animals  nourished  ? 

18.  What  do  animals  always  possess  ? 

19.  What  functions  are  peculiar  to  animals  alone  ? 

20.  What  substances  enter  into  the  structure  of 
the  human  body? 

21.  What  can  you  say  of  the  interchangeability 
of  these  substances  ? 

22.  How  do   these  substances  vary  at  different 
periods  of  life  ? 

23.  What  effect  does  this  have  on  the  limbs  in 
childhood  and  in  old  age  ? 

24.  What  offices  do  the  fluids  of  the  system  per- 
form? 

25.  Name  the  fluids  of  the  body. 

26.  How  are  the  particles  of  matter  arranged  in 
solids? 

27.  Name  the  solids  of  the  body. 

28.  Give  the  list  of  chemical  elements  in  the  hu- 
man body. 

29.  Into  what  substances  are  these  elements  di- 
vided ? 

30.  Name  the  metallic  substances. 

31.  Name  the  non-metallic  substances. 

32.  Give  an  arrangement  of  the  parts  of  the  body. 

33.  Define  a  fibre. 

34.  Define  a  fasciculus. 

35.  Define  a  tissue. 

36.  Define  an  organ. 

37.  What  is  the  action  of  an  organ  called? 

38.  Give  an  example  of  an  organ  and  its  func- 
tion. 

39.  Define  an  apparatus. 


PHYSIOLOGY.  211 

40.  Define  a  system. 

41.  To  what  can  every  organ  of  the  body  be  re- 
duced? 

42.  What  tissue  is  the  primary  form  of  all  others? 

43.  How  is  the  cellular  tissue  formed? 

44.  Where  is  the  cellular  tissue  found  ? 

45.  What  is  the  chief  use  of  this  tissue  ? 

46.  What  different  names  have  been  given  to 
the  cellular  tissue  ? 

47.  Describe  the  osseous  tissue. 

48.  Describe  the  muscular  tissue. 

49.  Describe  the  nervous  tissue. 

50.  Into  what  divisions  may  the  human  system 
be  divided  ? 

51.  How  are  the  bones  constructed? 

52.  Give  the  principal  uses  of  the  bones. 

53.  Why  do  the  bones  have  such  different  shapes? 

54.  Of  what  are  the  bones  composed? 

55.  What  are  the  different  uses  of  the  component 
parts  of  the  bones  ? 

56.  In  what  state  do  bones  exist  at  first? 

57.  How  are  they  converted  into  bone? 

58.  Which  portion  of  the  bones  continues  to  in- 
crease and  which  to  diminish  to  old  age? 

59.  What  proportion  of  the  bones  is  animal  mat- 
ter in  children? — in  adults? — in  old  age? 

60.  What  is  the  condition  of  the  bones  in  chil- 
dren? 

61.  At  what  age  do  the  bones  arrive  to  perfec- 
tion ? 

62.  What  is  the  condition  of  the  bones  in  old 
age? 

63.  What  is  the  strength  of  the  human  bone? 


212         THE  NORMAL  QUESTION  BOOK. 

64.  How  many  bones  are  there  in  the  human 
body? 

65.  Define  ossification  of  the  bones. 

66.  What  is  meant  by  centres  of  ossification  ? 

67.  What  is  the  only  bone  in  the  body  which  is 
completely  ossified,  or  hardened,  at  birth  ? 

68.  What  is  the  connection  between   any  two 
bones  called  ? 

69.  How  many  joints  are  there  in   the  human 
body? 

70.  How  many  kinds  of  joints  are  there? 

71.  What  is  the  construction  of  a  movable  joint? 

72.  Define  cartilage. 

73.  W  hat  are  the  chief  uses  of  cartilage  ? 

74.  What  is  the  membrane  called  that  invests 
the  bones? 

75.  Into  how  many  parts  are  the  bones  of  the 
body  divided? 

76.  How  are  the  bones  of  the  head  divided? 

77.  Describe  the  bones  of  the  skull. 

78.  Name  the  bones  of  the  skull. 

79.  How  are  the  bones  of  the  skull  united? 

80.  What  is  the  form  of  the  skull? 

81.  How  many  bones  in  the  ear,  and  what  is 
their  use  ? 

82.  How  many  bones  in  the  face,  and  what  is 
their  use  ? 

83.  Name  the  bones  of  the  trunk. 

84.  How  many  bones  in  the  spinal  column?  How 
are  they  arranged  ? 

85.  How  are  the  bones  of  the  spinal  column  di- 
vided? 


PHYSIOLOGY.  213 

86.  "What  is  gained  by  the  division  of  the  spinal 
column  into  so  many  separate  pieces? 

87.  Of  what  does  each  vertebra  consist? 

88.  How  many  ribs  are  there? 

89.  What  do  the  ribs  form? 

90.  Into  how  many  and  what  classes  are  the  ribs 
divided? 

91.  Describe  the  curvatures  of  the  ribs. 

92.  How,  and  to  what  are  the  ribs  united? 

93.  Describe  the  sternum. 

94.  How  many  and  what  bones  in  the  pelvis? 

95.  How  many  bones  in  the  upper  extremities? 
Name  them. 

96.  How  many  bones  in  the  lower  extremities  ?' 
Name  them. 

97.  What  is  a  muscle? 

98.  How  are  the  motions  of  the  body  performed? 

99.  How  is  muscular  motion  exerted? 

100.  What  are  characteristic  properties  of  mus- 
cles? 

101.  What  does  contractility  imply  ? 

102.  What  does  sensibility  imply? 

103.  Muscles  are  of  how  many  kinds? 

104.  How  are  the  voluntary  and  involuntary  mus- 
cles distinguished? 

105.  What  are  the  uses  of  the  muscles? 

106.  How  many  muscles  are  there  ? 

107.  How  are  the  muscles  arranged  ? 

108.  How  are  the  muscles  attached  to  the  bones  ? 

109.  What  effect  has  exercise  upon  the  muscles? 

110.  Name  the  digestive  organs. 

111.  Describe  the  mouth. 

112.  Name  the  salivary  glands. 


214  THE   NORMAL   QUESTION  BOOK. 

113.  Describe  the  pharynx. 

114.  Describe  the  esophagus. 

115.  Describe  the  human  stomach. 

116.  How  is  it  placed? 

117.  What  is  its  average  capacity  in  the  adult? 

118.  How  many  openings  has  it,  and  what  are 
they  called  ? 

119.  How  many  coats  does  the  stomach  possess, 
and  what  are  they  ? 

120.  Describe  the  lacteals. 

121.  Describe  the  intestines. 

122.  Describe  the  liver. 

123.  Describe  the  pancreas. 

124.  What  must  our  food  contain  ? 

125.  Define  food. 

126.  Of  what  does  food  consist  ? 

127.  What  does  organic  food  comprise  ? 

128.  What  does  inorganic  food  comprise? 

129.  What  changes  are-  wrought  upon  the  food 
in  the  body  ? 

130.  What  does  digestion  comprise  ? 

131.  What  are  the  chief  functions  of  the  stom- 
ach? 

132.  What  are  the  chief  conditions  favorable  to 
stomach  digestion  ? 

133.  Name  the  digestive  fluids. 

134.  What  are  the  functions  of  the  saliva? 

135.  What  is  the  function  of  the  gastric  juice? 

136.  What  are  the  functions  of  the  bile? 

137.  What  are  the  functions  of   the  pancreatic 
juice  ? 

138.  What  is  the  probable  function  of  the  intes- 
tinal juice? 


PHYSIOLOGY.  215 

139.  Of  what  is  chyme  composed? 

140.  When  is  chyme  changed  to  chyle? 

141.  What  is  the  object  of  absorption? 

142.  How  is  absorption  effected  ? 

143.  Explain  absorption  by  blood  vessels. 

144.  Explain  absorption  by  lacteals. 

145.  Describe  the  lymphatic  system. 

146.  How  is  the  chyle  finally  made  into  blood? 

147.  What  are  the  organs  used  for  the  circula- 
tion of  the  blood? 

148.  Describe  the  heart. 

149.  Describe  the  auricles. 

150.  Describe  the  ventricles. 

151.  How  do  the  cavities  in  the  heart  differ? 

152.  What  is  found  between  the  auricle  and  ven- 
tricle in  the  right  side  of  the  heart? 

153.  How  many  valves  in  the  left  side,  and  their 
names  ? 

154.  What  vessels  proceed  from  the  ventricles? 

155.  Describe,  their  valves. 

156.  Give  a  complete  description  of  the  valves  of 
the  heart. 

157.  With  what  is  the  heart  supplied? 

158.  Has  the  heart  sensibility  ? 

159.  Name  and  describe  the  parts  of  the  circula- 
tion of  the  blood.  ' 

160.  What  propels  the  blood  through  the  body? 

161.  Describe  the  movements  of  the  heart. 

162.  What  are  the  veins? 

163.  Where  do  they  commence? 

164.  Give  the  structure  of  the  coats  of  the  veins. 

165.  What  are  arteries? 

166.  Give  their  structure. 


216  THE   NORMAL   QUESTION   BOOK. 

167.  Describe  the  coats  of  the  arteries. 

168.  What  do  the  capillaries  constitute  ? 

169.  For  what  are  the  capillaries  remarkable? 

170.  What  relation  do  the  capillaries  bear  to  the 
arteries  and  veins? 

171.  What  important  operations  are  performed 
fn  these  vessels  ? 

172.  Give  the  elements  of  the  blood. 

173.  Give  the  specific  gravity  and  temperature 
of  the  blood. 

174.  How  much  blood  in  the  body? 

175.  Give  the  use  of  the  corpuscles  of  the  blood. 

176.  State  the  difference  between  the  red  and 
white  blood  corpuscles. 

177.  JTame  the  us'es  of  the  blood. 

178.  Name  the  respiratory  organs. 

179.  What  organs  also  aid  in  the  respiratory  pro- 
cess? 

180.  What  is  the  structure  of  the  lungs? 

181.  Describe  the  trachea. 

182.  Define  an  air  cell. 

183.  Of  what  use  are  the  capillaries  in  the  lungs  ? 

184.  What  is  the  difference  between  arterial  and 
venous  blood? 

185.  What  is  respiration? 

186.  What  is  the  object  of  respiration  ? 

187.  State  the  deductions  from  the  experiments 
of  Dr.  Southwood  Smith. 

188.  Compare  the  lungs  and  heart,  giving  three 
points  in  common  and  three  points  of  difference. 

189.  What  are  the  heat-producing  organs? 

190.  What  is  at  present  the  most  readily  accepted 
theory  of  animal  heat? 


PHYSIOLOGY.  217 

191.  What  is   the   temperature  of  the  human 
body? 

192.  How  is  the  body  kept  at' its  uniform  tem- 
perature ? 

193.  "What  is  the  essential  organ  of  the  voice  in 
all  animals? 

194.  Describe  the  larynx. 

195.  What  are  the  vocal  chords? 

196.  What  are  the  essential  conditions  of  the 
production  of  the  human  voice? 

197.  Name  the  secretory  organs. 

198.  Describe  the  exhalants. 

199.  Describe  the  follicles. 

200.  Describe  the  glands. 

201.  What  is  secretion? 

202.  What  is  the  skin? 

203.  Describe  the  two  layers  of  the  skin. 

204.  NiimQ  the  general  properties  of  the  skin. 

205.  Give  the  uses  of  the  skin. 

206.  Describe  the  hair  and  nails. 

207.  Describe  the  secretions  of  the  skin. 

208.  Give  the  functions  of  the  nervous  system. 

209.  Give  the  divisions  of  the  nervous  system. 

210.  What  does  the  cerebro-spinal  system  com- 
prise ? 

211.  What  does  the  sympathetic  system  contain? 

212.  Describe  the  brain. 

213.  Give  the  divisions  of  the  brain. 

214.  Describe  the  cerebrum  and  cerebellum. 

215.  Describe  the  spinal  cord. 

216.  Describe  the  cerebro-spinal  nerves. 

217.  Of  what  does  the  sympathetic  system  con- 
sist? 


218  THE   NORMAL   QUESTION   BOOK.-V 

218.  Of  what  is  the  nervous  system  composed  ? 

219.  What  are  the  functions  of  the  cerebrum? 

220.  What  are  the  functions  of  the  cerebellum  ? 

221.  What  is  the  function  of  the  medulla  oblon-* 
gataf 

222.  What  are  the  functions  of  the  spinal  cord? 

223.  What  are  the  functions  of  the  sympathetic 
system  ? 

224.  With  what  are  the  nerves  endowed  ? 

225.  Define  the  sensory  organs. 

226.  Of  what  does  the  structure  of  the  sense  of 
touch  consist? 

227.  Of  what  does  the  structure  of  the  sense  of 
taste  consist? 

228.  Of  what  does  the  structure  of  the  sense  of 
smell  consist? 

229.  Of  what  does  the  structure  of  the  sense  of 
sight  consist  ? 

230.  Name  the  three  coats  of  the  eye-ball. 

231.  Of  what  is  the  optical  apparatus  made  up? 

232.  Of  what  does  the  structure  of  the  sense  of 
hearing  consist  ? 

233.  To  what  is  the  outer  ear  adapted  ? 

234.  Describe  the  middle  ear. 

235.  Describe  the  inner  ear. 


PHYSIOLOGY.  219 


ANSWERS  TO  QUESTIONS  ON  PHYSIOLOGY. 


1.  Precious   lives  are  frequently  lost   through 
ignorance.     Thousands  squander  in  early  years  the 
strength  which  should  have  been  kept  for  the  work 
of  real  life.     Habits  are  often  formed  which  entail 
weakness  and  poverty  upon  manhood.     Some  silly 
feat  of  strength  may  produce  an  irreparable  injury. 
A  thoughtless  hour  of  reading  by  twilight  may  im- 
pair the  sight  for  life.     A  terrible  accident  may 
happen,  and  we  might  be  able  to  save  life  if  we 
"only  knew  what  to  do."     Physiology  gives  us 
that  knowledge  which  may  save  or  lengthen  life, 
repel  or  abate  disease,  and  which  regulates  our 
bodily  vigor. 

2.  The  kingdom  of  nature  is  divided  into  organic 
and  inorganic  bodies. 

3.  Organic  bodies  possess  organs  on  whose  ac- 
tions depend  their  growth  and  perfection. 

4.  This  division  includes  animals  and  plants. 

5.  Inorganic  bodies  are  devoid  of  organs,  or  in- 
struments ot  life. 


220         THE  NORMAL  QUESTION  BOOK. 

6.  In  this  division  are  classed  the  earths,  metals, 
and  other  minerals. 

7.  The    distinction   between   these   two   great 
classes  of  materials  is  based  upon  form,  coherence, 
growth,  composition  and  derivation. 

8.  There  are  two  conditions  in  which  we  may 
Study  organized  matter:  namely,  as  living  beings 
and  as  dead  bodies. 

9.  The  science  of  Physiology  is  derived  from 
the  first  method,  and  the  science  of  Anatomy  from 
the  second. 

10.  Human   Physiology   is  the    science    which 
treats  of  the  life  of  man — of  the  way  in  which  he 
lives,  and  moves,  and  has  his  being.     It  teaches 
how  man  is  begotten  and  born,  how  he  attains  ma- 
turity, and  how  he  dies. 

11.  Anatomy  teaches  the  number,  size,  situation, 
and  composition  of  the  various  parts,  with  their 
relations  to  each  other. 

12.  Anatomy  and  Physiology,  in  their  most  ex- 
tended use,  apply  to  all  organized  beings,  though 
they  are  naturally  divided  into  the  several  branches 
of  Vegetable  Anatomy  and  Physiology,  and  Ani- 
mal Anatomy  and  Physiology. 

13.  Animal  Anatomy  and  Physiology  are  again 
divided  into  Comparative  Anatomy  and  Physiol- 
ogy, and  Human  Anatomy  and  Physiology. 


PHYSIOLOGY.  221 

14.  Comparative  anatomy  and  physiology  are  de- 
voted to  the  lower  orders  of  animals. 

15.  Human  anatomy  and  physiology  are  limited 
in  their  application  to  man. 

16.  Plants  are  nourished  by  the  inorganic  ele- 
ments found  in  the  earth  and  air  around  them. 
The  materials  of  their  growth  are  received  in  the 
form  of  a  liquid  or  a  gas,  already  prepared  for  their 
use. 

17.  Animals  are  nourished  by  the  organic  mate- 
rials of  vegetables  or  of  other  animals. 

18.  Animals  always  possess  a  stomach  or  a  diges- 
tive cavity,  in  which  their  food  is  received,  to  un- 
dergo a  process  of  preparation  before  it  can  be  ab- 
sorbed into  their  tissues. 

19.  Sensation  and  voluntary  motion  are  peculiar 
to  animals  alone,  and  are  therefore  called  animal 
functions. 

20.  In  the  structure  of  the  human  body,  there  is 
a  union  of  fluids  and  solids. 


21.  These  substances  are   essentially  the  same, 
for  the  one  is  readily  changed  into  the  other.   There 
is  no  fluid  that  does  not  contain  solid  matter  in 
solution,  and  no  solid  matter  that  is  destitute  of 
fluid. 

22.  In  different  individuals,  and  at  different  pe- 
riods of  life  the  proportion  of  fluids  and  solids 
varies.     In  youth,  the  fluids  are  more  abundant 
than  in  advanced  life. 


222  THE   NORMAL   QUESTION   BOOK. 

23.  For  this  reason,  the  limbs  in  childhood  are 
soft  and  round,  while  in  old  age  they  assume  a 
hard  and  wrinkled  appearance. 

24.  The  fluids  not  only  contain   the  materials 
from  which  every  part  of  the  body  is  formed,  but 
they  are  the  medium  for  conveying  the  waste,  de- 
cayed particles  of  matter  from  the  system. 

25.  The  fluids   of  the  body  are  blood,   chyle^ 
lymph,  saliva,  gastric  juice,  pancreatic  juice,  syno^ 
via,  mucous,  and  serum.    Bile,  sweat  and  urine  are 
excretions. 

26.  The  particles  of  matter  in  solids  are  arranged 
variously ;    sometimes   in   fibres    (threads),  some- 
times in  laminae  (plates),  sometimes  homogeneously, 
as  in  basement  membranes. 

27.  The  solids  of  the  body  are  bones,  teeth,  car- 
tilages, ligaments,  muscles,  nerves,  vessels,  viscera, 
membranes,  skin,  hair  and  nails. 

28.  Of  the  sixty-five  chemical  elements  or  simple 
bodies  known  to  exist,  only  fifteen  have  been  found 
as  normal  constituents  of  the  human  body.     The 
following  is  the  list : 

(1)  Oxygen,  (9)  Sodium, 

(2)  Hydrogen,  (10)  Potassium, 

(3)  Carbon,  (11)  Chlorine, 

(4)  Nitrogen,  (12)  Fluorine, 

(5)  Sulphur,  (13)  Silicon, 

(6)  Phosphorus,  (14)  Iron, 


PHYSIOLOGY.  223 

(7)  Calcium,  (15)  Manganese. 

(8)  Magnesium, 

29.  These  elements  are  divided  into  metallic  and 
non-metallic  substances. 

30.  The  metallic  substances  are  potassium,  so- 
dium, calcium,  magnesium,  aluminum,  iron  man- 
ganese, and  copper. 

31.  The   non-metallic    substances    are    oxygen, 
hydrogen,  carbon,  nitrogen,  silicium,  phosphorus, 
sulphur,  chlorine,  and  a  few  others. 

32.  The   parts   of  the   body  are  arranged  into 
fibres,  fasciculi,  tissues,  organs,  apparatuses,  and 
systems. 

33.  A  fibre  is  a  thread  of  exceeding  fineness.    It 
is  either  cylindriform  or  flattened. 

34.  A  fasciculus  is  the  term  applied  to  several 
fibres  united.      Its  general  characteristics  are  the 
same  as  fibres. 

35.  A  tissue  is  a  term  applied  to  several  different 
solids  of  the  body. 

36.  An  organ  is  an  instrument  composed  of  tis- 
sues, and  designed  for  action. 

37.  Its  action  is  called  its  function  or  use. 

38.  The  liver  is  an  organ,  and  the  secretion  of 
bile  its  function. 

39.  An  apparatus  consists  of  a  number  of  differ- 
ent organs,  arranged  for  the  performance  of 


224  THE   NORMAL    QUESTION   BOOK. 

office.     The  teeth,  mouth,  stomach,  intestines,  etc., 
belong  to  the  digestive  apparatus. 

40.  A  system  is  a  connected  series  of  similar 
parts,  such  as  the  muscular  or  the  nervous  system. 

41.  However  various  all  organs  may  appear  in 
their  structure  and  composition,  it  is  now  supposed 
that  they  can  he  reduced  to  a  few  tissues,  as  the 
cellular,  osseous^  muscular,  mucous,  nervous,  etc. 

42.  The  cellular  or  areolar  tissue  is  regarded  as 
the  primary  form  of  all  others. 

43.  It  is  formed  by  the  crossing  or  interlacing  of 
minute  fibres,  interwoven  in  every  direction,  so  as 
to  form  a  web-like  membrane  with  innumerable 
small  spaces,  which  communicate  with  each  other. 

44.  The  cellular  tissue  is  found  in  every  part  of 
the  system,  except  in  compact  portions  of  bone, 
teeth  and  cartilage. 

45.  Its  chief  use  seems  to  be  to  connect  together 
organs  and  parts  of  organs  which  require  a  certain 
degree  of  motion  on  each  other.     It  possesses  great 
power  of  extensibility  and  elasticity. 

46.  Various  names  have  been  assigned  to   the 
cellular  membrane,  corresponding  to  the  different 
positions   in  which  it  is  found.     When  inclosing 
those  organs  not  exposed  to  the  air,  it  receives  the 
name  of  serous  membrane,  from  a  fluid  secreted  in 
it,  called  serum.     In  the  lining  of  the  respiratory 


PHYSIOLOGY.  225 

passages  and  of  the  alimentary  canal,  it  is  called 
mucous  membrane,  from  a  secretion  of  mucous 
which  is  poured  out  from  numerous  glands  beneath 
its  surface.  Where  it  forms  a  covering  for  the 
body,  it  is  known  as  the  dermoid  membrane,  or 
skin. 

47.  The  osseous  tissue,  in   composition  and  ar- 
rangement of  matter,  varies  at  different  periods  of 
life,  and  in  different  bones.    In  some  instances,  the 
bony  matter  is  disposed  in  plates,  while  in  other 
instances,  the  arrangement  is  cylindrical.     Some- 
times, the  bony  matter  is  dense  and  compact ;  again, 
it  is  spongy,  or  porous. 

48.  The  muscular  tissue  is  composed  of   many 
fibres,  that  unite  to  form  fasciculi,  each  of  which 
is  enclosed  in  a  delicate  layer  of  cellular  tissue. 

49.  The  nervous  tissue  consists  of  soft,  pulpy 
matter,  enclosed  in  a  sheath,  called  neurilema.    This 
tissue  consists  of   two  substances;    the  one  of  a 
pulpy  character  and  gray  color,  is  called  cin-e-ri- 
tious  (ash-colored) ;  the  other,  of  a  fibrous  charac- 
ter and  white,  is  named  medullary  (marrow-like). 

50.  Though   the   body  is   harmoniously   united 
into  a  single  system,  it  can  be  dissected  and  parts 
described  separately.     The  following  order  is  here 
adopted: 

(1)   Osteology,  or  an  account  of  the   bones  or 
frame  work  of  the  system. 

15 


226  THE   NORMAL   QUESTION  BOOK. 

(2)  Myology,  an  account  of  the  muscles  or  the 
moving  powers  of  the  system. 

(3)  Splanchnology,  or  the  nutritive  organs. 

(4)  Angiology,   an   account  of  the  circulating 
system  of  the  arteries  and  veins. 

(5)  Pneumonology,  or  an  account  of  the  respi- 
ratory, vocal,  and  calorific  organs. 

(6)  Ichorology,  or  the  lymphatic  and  secreting 
system. 

(7)  Neurology,  or  the  history  of  the   nervous 
system,  the  vivifying  power. 

(8)  The  inlets  of  the  soul,  or  the  senses. 

51.  The  bony  structure  is  a  dense,  sub-fibrous 
basis,  filled  with  minute  cells,  and  traversed  in  all 
directions  by  branching  and  connected  canals  called 
Haversian,  which  give  room  to  blood  vessels  and 
nerves. 

52.  The  bones  have  three  principal  uses:     1.  To 
protect  the  delicate  organs ;  2.  To  serve  as  levers 
on  which  the  muscles  may  act  to  produce  motion ; 
and  3.  To  preserve  the  shape  of  the  body. 

53.  Bones  differ  in  form  according  to  the  uses 
they  subserve.     For  convenience  in  walking,  some 
are  long;  for  strength  and  compactness,  some  are 
short  and  thick ;  for  covering  a  cavity,  some  are 
flat ;  and  for  special  purposes,  some  are  irregular. 

54.  The  bones  are  composed  of  both  animal  and 
earthy  matter. 


PHYSIOLOGY.  227 

55.  The  earthy  portion  of  the  bone  gives  them 
solidity  arid  strength,  while  the  animal  part  endows 
them  with  vitality. 

56.  At  first,  bones  exist  in  a  state  of  cartilage. 

57.  They  are  gradually  converted  into  bones  by 
a  deposition  of  phosphate  and  carbonate  of  lime. 

58.  The  lime  of  the  earthy  portion  of  the  bones 
is   continually  increasing  till   old   age,  while  the 
animal  portion  is  gradually  diminishing. 

59.  In  children,  the  animal   matter   constitutes 
about  one-half;  in  adults,  one-fifth;  and  in  old  age, 
one-eighth  of  the  whole  composition. 

60.  In  children,  the  t>ones  are  soft  and  flexible, 
and  admirably  adapted  to   sustain   the  numerous 
falls  and  accidents,  to  which  they  are  liable,  with- 
out injury. 

61.  The  bones  do  not  arrive  at  their  perfect  state 
until  about  the  twentieth  year. 

62.  As  the  animal  matter  of  the  bones  diminishes 
in  old  age,  they  become  hard  and  brittle. 

63.  Human    bones,   when   used    as    levers,   are 
twenty-two  times  as  strong  as  sandstone,  three  and 
one-half  times  as  strong  as  lead,  nearly  two  and 
three-fourths  times  as  strong  as  elm  and  ash,  and 
twice  as  strong  as  box,  yew,  and  oak  timber. 

64.  There  are  two  hundred  and  eight  bones  in 


228         THE  NORMAL  QUESTION  BOOK. 

the  human  body,  beside  the  teeth.  Some  anato- 
mists reckon  more  than  this  number,  others  less, 
for  the  reason  that,  at  different  periods  of  life,  the 
number  of  pieces  of  which  one  bone  is  formed, 
varies. 

Example. — The  breast-bone,   in   infancy,   has 
eight  pieces;  in  youth,  three;  in  old  age,  but  one. 

65.  The  process  of  ossification  is  the  deposition 
of  mineral  matter  in  the  cartilage. 

66.  The  deposition  of  mineral  matter  in  the  car- 
tilage takes  place  first  at  particular  points,  called 
the  centres  of  ossification. 

67.  It  is  that  bone  which  is  called  the  petrous, 
which  contains  the  organs  of  hearing. 

68.  A  joint  or  articulation.     It  is  by  means  of 
these  joints  that  the  various  motions  of  the  bones 
are  easily  made. 

69.  Over  two  hundred,  all  perfectly  adapted  to 
their  various  positions  and  work. 

70.  Am.  No.  1.    Three  :   fixed,  or  such  as  the 
joints  of  the  skull  and  upper  jaw,  teeth  and  vomer ; 
movable,  such  as  the  shoulder,  hip,  elbow,  wrist, 
knee,  ankle,  carpus,  and  tarsus;  intermediate,  of 
such  joints  as  those  in  the  vertebral  column. 

Ans.  No.  2.  There  are  several  kinds  of  joints  in 
the  body,  the  most  important  of  which  are  the 
hinge-joint  at  the  elbow  and  knee,  and  the  ball  and 
socket  joint  at  the  hip  and  shoulder. 


PHYSIOLOGY.  229 

71.  The  opposing  surfaces  are  coated  by  an  elas- 
tic substance  called  cartilage;    this  is  lubricated 
(oiled)  by  a  fluid  called  synovia,  which  is  secreted 
in  an  enclosed  membrane  or  bag,  called  synovial. 

72.  Cartilage  is  a  dense,  firm  substance,  nearly 
related  to  bone,  but  it  lacks  the  mineral  ingredi- 
ents of  bone,  which  makes  it  softer  and  more  elas- 
tic. 

73.  The  chief  uses  of  cartilage  are  the  following : 

(1)  To  yield  smooth  surfaces  for  eas}7  friction 
in  the  joints,  and  to  act  as  a  cushion  in  shocks. 

(2)  To  fasten  bones  together  without  destroy- 
ing freedom  of  movement,  as  between  the  verte- 
brae. 

(3)  To  serve  as  a  firm  yet  not  unyielding  frame- 
work, as  in  the  larynx  and  trachea. 

(4)  To  adapt  itself  to  all  purposes  where  firm- 
ness, toughness,  elasticity  and  strength  are  required. 

74.  The  bones  are  closely  covered  with  a  very 
firm,  whitish-yellow  membrane,  very  smooth.    This 
is  called  the  periosteum.     This  membrane  encloses 
the  vessels  which  convey  nutriment  into  the  bones. 
It  is  to  this  periosteum  that  the  ligaments  and  ten- 
dons are  attached,  as  they  can  not  fasten  to  the 
bone  itself. 

75.  They  are  divided,  for  convenience,  into  four 
parts : 

1st.  The  bones  of  the  head. 

2d.   The  bones  of  the  trunk. 

3d.    The  bones  of  the  upper  extremities. 


230         THE  NORMAL  QUESTION  BOOK. 

4th.  The  bones  of  the  lower  extremities. 

76.  The  bones  of  the  head  are  divided  into  those 
of  the  skull,  ear  and  face. 

77.  The  skull  is  composed  of  eight  bones.    They 
are  formed  of  two  plates,  or  tablets  of  bony  matter, 
united  by  a  porous  portion  of  bone. 

78.  1  frontal,  1  occipital,  2  temporal,  1  sphenoid, 
2  parietal,  1  ethmoid. 

79.  The  bones  of  the  skull  are  united  by  ragged 
edges  called  Sutures.     These  are  small  and  rough 
projections  of  bone  which  are  largest  at  their  ex< 
tremities,  and  are  made  to  fit  into  the  edges  of  tht 
opposite  bone  with  great  firmness. 

80.  The  skull  is  convex  externally,  and  at  th* 
base  much  thicker  than  at  the  top  or  sides. 

81.  In  each  ear  are  four  very  small  bones.  The} 
aid  in  hearing. 

82.  In  the  face  are  fourteen  bones,  some  of  which 
serve   for  the   attachment   of   powerful  muscles, 
which  are  more  or  less  called  into  action  in  masti- 
cating food ;  others  retain  in  place  the  soft  parts  of 
the  face. 

83.  The  bones  of  the  trunk  include  those  of  the 
spinal  column  (back-bone),  the  thorax  (chest),  and 
the  pelvis  (basin). 

84.  The  spinal  column  is  composed  of  twenty- 


PHYSIOLOGY.  231 

four  bones.     These  are  so  arranged  that  a  tube  or 
canal  is  formed  through  the  whole  column. 

85.  Seven    of   these  are    called   cervical    (neck) 
bones,  twelve  dorsal  (back)  bones,  five  lumbar  (loin) 
bones. 

86.  By  a  division  of  the  spinal  column  into  so 
large  a  number  of  separate  bones,  very  great  free- 
dom of  motion  is  allowed,  with  only  a  slight  bend 
at  any  particular  point. 

87.  Each  vertebrae  consists  of  a  body,  which  is 
situated  in  front  of  the  spinal  canal,  and  of  seven 
processes  or  projections,  which  serve  to  form  the 
spinal  canal,  and  unite  the  vertebrae  to  each  other 
by  afibrding  attachments  for  the  muscles. 

88.  There  are  twenty-four  ribs — twelve  on  each 
side. 

89.  The  ribs  form  the  side  walls  of  the  thorax. 

90.  The  ribs  are  divided  into  three  classes;  seven 
are  true  ribs,  three  are  false  ribs,  and  two  are  float- 
ing ribs. 

91.  Each  rib  has  two  curvatures — one  of  which 
bends  it  around  the  chest  horizontally,  and  another 
which   gives  it  a  downward    curvature   from  the 
back  forward. 

92.  The  ribs  are  united  to  the  vertebrae  by  true 
joints,  but  forward,  the  true  ribs  join  the  breast- 
bone by  flexible  cartilages.     The  three  false  ribs 
unite  to  a  cartilage  which  is  common  to  all  of  them, 
and  by  means  of  which  they  are  attached  to  the 


232        THE  NORMAL  QUESTION  BOOK. 

breast-bone.     The  floating  ribs  have  no  forward 
attachment. 

93.  The  sternum,  or  breast-bone,  forms  the  front 
of  the  thorax.     In  infancy,  it  is  in  eight  distinct 
pieces;  in  youth,  three;  and  in  old  age,  but  one. 

94.  The  pelvis,  or  lower  division  of  the  trunk, 
consists  of  four  bones.     The  sacrum,  the  coccyx, 
and  the  innominatum. 

95.  The    upper    extremities    contain    sixty-four 
bones — the  scapula,  (shoulder-blade) ;   the  clavicle, 
(collar-bone) ;  the  humerus,  (first  bone  of  the  arm) ; 
the  ulna  and  radius,  (bones  of  the  fore-arm);  the 
carpus,  (wrist) ;  the  metacarpus,  (palm  of  the  hand) ; 
and  the  phalanges,  (fingers  and  thumb.) 

96.  The  lower  extremities  contain  sixty  bones — 
the  femur,  (thigh-bone);   the  patella,   (knee-pan;) 
the  tibia,  (shin-bone);   the  fibula,  (small   bone  of 
the  leg) ;  the  tarsus,  (instep) ;  the  metatarsus,  (mid- 
dle of  the  foot) ;  and  the  phalanges,  (toes). 

97.  A  muscle  is  an  aggregation  of  minute  fibres, 
each  of  which  is  again  composed  of  minute  fibrils, 
held  together  by  a  delicate  membrane. 

98.  All  the  motions  in  the  animal  body  are  per- 
formed by  muscles.     Generally  speaking,  muscles 
are  the  organs  of  motion. 

99.  Muscular  motion  is  exerted  by  means  of  the 
contractility  of  muscles. 

100.  Contractility  and  sensibility  are  character 
istic  properties  of  muscles. 


i 


PHYSIOLOGY.  233 

Contractility  implies  their  power  of   con- 
tracting and  relaxing. 

102.  Sensibility  implies  their  power  of  commu- 
nicating impressions  directly  to  the  mind. 

103.  Muscles  are  of  two  kinds:  involuntary  and 
voluntary. 

104.  The  voluntary  and  involuntary  muscles  are 
distinguished  by  their  structure  and  mode  of  ac- 
tion. 

105.  The  uses  of  the  muscles  are  : 

(1)  To  produce  motion. 

(2)  To  hold  the  limbs  in  position. 

(3)  To  protect  the  skeleton. 

106.  There  are,  in  all,  about  five  hundred  mus- 
cles, each  having  its  special  use,  and  all  working 
in  exquisite  harmon}^  and  perfection. 

107.  The   muscles   are  arranged  in  pairs,  each 
with  its  antagonist,  so  that  as  they  contract  and 
expand  alternately,  the  bone  to  which  they  are  at- 
tached is  moved  to  and  fro. 

108.  The  ends  of  the  muscles  are  generally  at- 
tached to  the  bone  by  strong,  flexible,  but  inelastic 
tendons. 

109.  The  effect  of  exercise  upon  a  muscle  is  very 
marked.     By   use   it   grows   larger,  and   becomes 
hard,  compact  and  darker-colored;  by  disuse  it  de- 
creases in  size,  and  becomes  soft,  flabby,  and  pale. 

110.  The  digestive  organs  are  the  mouth,  teeth, 
salivary  glands,  pharynx,  oesophagus  (gullet),  stom- 
ach, intestines  (bowels),  lacteals  (milk,  or  chyle  ves- 


234        THE  NORMAL  QUESTION  BOOK. 

sels),  thoracic  duct,  liver,  and  the  pancreas  (sweet- 
bread). 

111.  The   mouth   is   an  irregular  cavity,  which 
contains  the  instruments  of  mastication  and  the  or- 
gans of  taste.     It  is  bounded  in  front  by  the  lips ; 
on  each  side  by  the  internal  surface  of  the  cheeks ; 
above,  by  the  hard  palate  and  teeth  of  the  upper 
jaw;  below,  by  the  tongue  and  teeth  of  the  lower 
jaw;  behind,  it  is  continuous  with  the   pharynx, 
but  is  separated  from  it  by  a  kind  of  movable  cur- 
tain called  the  soft  palate. 

112.  The  salivary  glands  are  six  in  number,  three 
on  each  side  of  the  jaw.  They  are  called  the  parotid, 
the  sub-maxillary,  and  the  sub-lingual. 

113.  The  pharynx  is  a  short  and  somewhat  ir- 
regular tubular  cavity,  into  which  the  mouth  opens 
behind,  serving  as  a  portion  of  the  canal  from  the 
mouth  to  the  stomach.     It  also  communicates  with 
both  ears,  with  the  nostrils  and  lungs,  by  passages 
which  open  directly  into  it. 

114.  The  pharynx  terminates  in  the  esophagus 
(meaning  the   passage   for   conveying   the   food). 
This  is  a  long  and  narrow  tube,  made  up  of  two 
muscular  coats,  which  terminates  in  the  stomach 
by  the  cardiac  orifice.     It  is  smaller  in  size  than 
the  pharynx,  and  contains  a  great  number  of  min- 
ute glands  which  secrete  an  oily  fluid  when  the 
food  is  passing  through  it. 


PHYSIOLOGY. 

115.  The  stomach  in  man  is  an  oblong  membran- 
ous bag. 

116.  It  is  placed  obliquely  across  the  abdomen, 
and  just  below  the  diaphragm. 

117.  The  average  capacity  in  the  adult  is  about 
one  quart,  though  it  may  be  distended  to  contain  a 
much  larger  quantity,  or  be  contracted  to  a  very 
small  size. 

118.  It   has   two    openings — one    towards   the 
heart,  called  the  cardiac  orifice,  which  receives  the 
food   from   the  esophagus — and   the  other  at  the 
right  or  small  end  of  the  stomach,  called  the  pyloric 
orifice,  for  the  transmission  of  food  to  the  small  in- 
testines. 

119.  The    stomach    possesses   three    coats — the 
outer  or  serous,  the  middle  or  muscular,  and  the 
inner  or  mucous. 

120.  The  lacteals  are  a  class  of  vessels  communi- 
cating with  the   mucous  surface  of  the  intestines 
and  carry  a  milky  fluid  containing  the  nutritious 
part  of  the  food  in  a  dissolved  state.     The  lacteals, 
in  their  passage  through  the  mesentery,  form  clus- 
ters called  mesenteric  glands,  in  which  the  lacteal 
fluid  undergoes  an  important  change,  by  which  it 
acquires  many  of  the  properties  of  blood. 

121.  The  intestines,  or  alimentary  canal,  are  di- 
vided into  two  parts — the  small   and    large      The 
small  intestine  is  about  twenty-five  feet  in  length, 
and  is   divided    into   three   portions,   namely,  the 
duodenum,  the  jejunum,  and  the  ileum.     The  larger 


236  THE    NORMAL   QUESTION   BOOK. 

intestine  is  about  five  feet  in  length,  and  is  divided 
into  three  parts,  namely,  the  coecum,  the  colon,  and 
the  rectum. 

122.  The  liver,  a  gland  appended  to  the  alimen- 
tary canal,  is  the  largest  organ  in  the  system,  and 
weighs  about  four  pounds.     It  is  situated   in  the 
right  side,  below  the  diaphragm,  and  is  composed 
of  several  lobes.     Its  upper  surface  is  convex;  its 
under  concave.     This  organ  is  retained  in  its  pla^e 
by  several  ligaments.     It  performs  the  double  office 
of  separating  impurities  from  the  venous   blocd, 
and  secreting  a  fluid  (bile)  necessary  to  chylifica- 
tion. 

123.  The  pancreas   is   a   long,   flattened   gland, 
analogous  to  the  salivary  glands.     It  is  about  six 
inches  in  length,  weighs  three  or  four  ounces,  and 
is  situated  transversely  across  the  posterior  wall  of 
the  abdomen,  behind  the  stomach. 

124.  The   human   body  is  composed  largely  of 
combinations  of  carbon,  nitrogen,   hydrogen    and 
oxygen;  hence,  our  food  must  contain  these  ele- 
ments. 

125.  Food  may  be  called  that  substance  which, 
when  within  the  body,  supplies  material  which  re- 
news lost  tissue  or  supports  some  process  of  life. 

126.  Food  consists  of  organic  and  inorganic  ma- 
terials. 

127.  Organic  food  comprises  (1)  nitrogenous  sub- 
stances;   (2)  fats;    (3)  compounds   of  carbon  a*  1 
hydrogen,  such  as  sugar  or  starch. 


PHYSIOLOGY.  237 

128.  Inorganic  food  comprises  water,  and  alka- 
lies, such  as  salt  and  phosphates. 

129.  The  changes  wrought  upon  the  food  in  the 
body  are,  (1)  digestion,  or  the  proper  preparation 
of  food  in  the  alimentary  canal ;  (2)  assimilation, 
or  the  conversion  of  food  into  blood  and  tissues; 
(3)  excretion,  or  the  decomposition  of  food. 

130.  Digestion  comprises  (1)  mastication;  (2)  in- 
salivation;  (3)  deglutition;  (4)  stomach-digestion; 
(5)  digestion  in  the  intestines. 

131.  The  chief  functions  of  the  stomach  are,  (1) 
to  mix  the  food  into  a  pulp;  (2)  to  dissolve  the  ni- 
trogenous portion  of  the  food  by  means  of  the  gas- 
tric juice. 

132.  The  chief  conditions  favorable  to  stomach 
digestion  are,  (1)  temperature  of  100°  F.,  nearly; 

(2)  continual  motion  of  the  walls  of  the*  stomach  ; 

(3)  the  removal  of  thoroughly  digested  portions  of 
food  from  the  stomach  ;  (4)  previous  perfect  masti- 
cation and  insalivation  of  the  food  ;  (5)  a  moderate 
quantity  of  food;    (6)  regular  intervals   between 
meals;  (7)  no  severe  physical  or  mental  exertion 
immediately  before  or  after  a  meal;  (8)  a  tranquil 
mind ;  (9)  bodily  health ;  (10)  favorable  weather. 

133.  The  digestive  fluids  are  (1)  the  saliva ;  (2) 
the  gastric  juice ;  (3)  the  bile ;  (4)  the  pancreatic 
juice;  (5)  the  intestinal  juice. 

134.  Functions  of  the  saliva  : 

(1)  Softening  the  food ;  (2)  Converting  starch 
into  sugar ;  (3)  mingling  the  food  with  air. 


238        THE  NORMAL  QUESTION  BOOK. 

135.  Functions  of  the  gastric  juice  :     Dissolving 
albuminous  and  other  substances. 

136.  Functions  of  the  bile: 

(1)  Absorbing  waste  material  from  the  blood? 
(2)  Dissolving  fatty  portions  of  food;  (3)  Stimu- 
lating the  action  of  the  intestines. 

137.  Functions  of  the  pancreatic  juice  : 

(1)  Digesting  fats;  (2)  Dissolving  albuminous 
substances. 

138.  That  of  digesting  albuminous  matter. 

139.  Chyme  is  composed  of  (1)  albuminous  mat- 
ter;  (2)  fatty  matter;  (3)  starch;  (4)  gastric  juice. 

140.  After  its  union  with  bile,  chyme  is  usually 
called  chyle. 

141.  The  object  of  absorption  is  (1)  to  supply  the 
blood  with  fresh  materials;  (2)   to  remove  waste 
particles. 

142.  Absorption  is  effected  by  blood-vessels  (cap- 
illaries) and  by  lacteals  (or  lymphatics). 

143.  Absorption    by   blood-vessels    takes    place 
chiefly  in  the  stomach    and   the   intestinal   canal. 
These  absorbed  materials  are  conveyed  to  veins. 

144.  Absorption  by  lacteals  takes   place  in  the 
small  intestine  by  minute  vessels  called  villi ;  these 
lead  the  absorbed  chyle  into  the  lacteals  or  lym- 
phatic vessels,  whence  it  is  conveyed  through  the 
lymphatic  glands  to  the  thoracic  duct,  and  thence 
thrown  into  veins. 

145.  The  lymphatic  system  of  the  body  has  its 


PHYSIOLOGY.  239 

ramifications  throughout  the  body  similar  to  the 
system  of  blood-vessels,  from  which  it  differs  in 
this,  that  its  fluid  is  lymph,  and  flows  in  only  one 
direction. 

146.  By  the  aid  of  respiration,  the  chyle  is  finally 
made  into  blood. 

147.  The  organs  composing  the  circulatory  sys- 
tem are  the  heart,  arteries,  veins,  and  capillaries. 

148.  The  heart,  or  central  engine  of  circulation, 
is  located  in  the  thorax  or  chest,  resting  by  ite 
lower  surface  on  the  diaphragm,  and  somewhat  to 
the  left  of  the  middle  line  of  the  body.     It  is  of  a 
conical  form,  made  of  animal  muscular  fibre,  the 
fibers  crossing  themselves  in  at  least  three  direc- 
tions.    The  heart  is  a  double  organ,  one  side  being 
called  the  arterial  and  the  other  the  venous,  or  left 
and  right  hearts,  since  the  former  receives  and  pro- 
pels the  pure  or  arterial  blood,  while  the  latter  cir- 
culates venous  blood.     Again,  each  of  the  two  sides 
or  hearts  is  divided  into  an  auricle  and  a  ventri- 
cle.    Each   of  these   four  cavities  will  ordinarily 
contain  about  three  fluid  ounces,  making  the  whole 
heart  to  contain  nearly  a  pint. 

149.  The  auricles  differ  in  muscularity  from  the 
ventricles.     Their  walls  are  thinner,  and  of  a  blu- 
ish color.     These  cavities  are  a  kind  of  reservoir, 
designed  to  contain  the  blood  arriving  by  the  veins. 

150.  The  ventricles  not   only  have  their  walls 
thicker  than  the  auricles,  but  they  differ  in  their 
internal  structure.    From  the  interior  of  these  cav- 
ities arise  fleshy  columns,  called  columnce  carnece. 


240        THE  NORMAL  QUESTION  BOOK. 

The  walls  of  the  left  ventricle  are  thicker  and 
stronger  than  those  of  the  right. 

151.  The  cavities  in  the  right  side  of  the  heart 
are  triangular  in  shape;  those  of  the  left  oval. 

152.  Between  the  auricle  and  ventricle  in  the 
right  side  of  the  heart,  there  are  three  folds,  or 
doublings,  of  thin,  triangular  membrane,  called  the 
tricuspid  valves. 

153.  Between  the  auricle  and  ventricle  in  the 
left  side,  there  are  two  valves  called  the  mitral. 

154.  The  right  ventricle  of  the  heart  gives  rise 
to  the  pulmonary  artery;  the   left  ventricle,  to  a 
large  artery  called  the  aorta. 

155.  At  the  commencement  of  each  of  these  ar- 
teries there  are  three  folds  of  membrane,  and  from 
their  shape,  they  are  called  semi-lunar  valves. 

156.  The  valves  are  muscular  fibers  arranged  in 
such  a  form  that  the  blood  can  pass  through  them  ; 
but  the  contracting  of  the  ventricle  presses  the 
blood  back  against  the  valve  and  closes  it  so  that 
the  blood  can  not  pass  back  again.     The  same  con- 
traction of  the  muscles  of  the  ventricle  forces  the 
valves  open  out  into  the  arteries,  and  the  pressure 
of  the  blood  in  the  artery  closes  the  valve  again. 

157.  The   heart   is  supplied   with   arteries    and 
veins,  which  ramify  between  its  muscular  fibers, 
through  which  its  nutrient  blood  passes.     It  has, 


PHYSIOLOGY.  241 

likewise,  a  few  lymphatics,  and  many  small  nervous 
filaments  from  the  sympathetic  system  of  nerves. 

158.  The  heart,  in  its  natural  state,  exhibits  but 
slight  indications  of  sensibility,  and  although  nearly 
destitute  of  the  sensation  of  touch,  it  is  yet,  how- 
ever, instantly  affected  by  every  painful  bodily  ex- 
citement, or  strong  mental  emotions. 

159.  The  circulation  consists  of  two  parts :     1. 
Great  or  systemic  circulation ;   2.    Lesser  or  pul- 
monary circulation.     Commencing,  we   will   sup- 
pose, with  the  left  ventricle,  the  blood  is  impelled 
through  the  semi-lunar  valves  into  the  aorta,  and 
along  its  successive  branches  to  the  microscopic 
net-work  of  the  capillaries,  which  ramify  through 
all  the  tissues  of  the  body.     In  the  capillaries,  the 
blood  parts  with  its  nutritive  elements,  becomes 
venous,  and  is  collected  into  the  small  veins,  and 
flows  through  their  converging  branches  into  the 
main  trunks,  the  vense  cavae,  and  finally  into  the 
right  auricle.     From  the  right  auricle  it  is  emptied 
through  the  tricuspid  valves  into  the  right  ventricle. 
This  completes  the  great  or  systemic  circulation. 
From   the   right  ventricle   the   blood  is  impelled 
through  the  semi-lunar  valves  into  the  pulmonary 
artery,  and  along  its  branches  to  the  capillaries  of 
the  lungs,  to  be  exposed  to  the  action  of  the  air. 
From  the  pulmonary  capillaries  the  blood  enters  in 
converging  streams  the   pulmonary  veins,  which 
carry  it  to  the  left  auricle,  and  this  completes  the 
lesser  or  pulmonary  circulation.     It  is  then  emptied 

16 


242        THE  NORMAL  QUESTION  BOOK. 

through  the  bicuspid  valves  into  the  left  ventricle, 
where  it  started  on  its  course. 

160.  The  force  which  propels  the  blood  through 
the  body  lies  in  the  substance  of  the  heart.     Its 
assistants  in  this  are:  1st,  the  elastic  walls  of  the 
arteries ;  2d,  the  muscular  pressure  upon  some  of 
the  veins ;  3d,  the  contraction  and  expansion  of  the 
chest  in  breathing 

161.  The  movements  of  the  heart  consist  of  an 
alternate  contraction  and  expansion.     The  former 
is  called  the  systole,  and  the  latter  the  diastole. 
During  the  diastole  the  blood  flows  into  the  heart, 
to  be  expelled  by  the  systole.     The  alternation  of 
these  movements  constitutes  the  beating  of  the  heart. 

162.  The  veins  are  the  vessels  which  return  the 
blood  to  the  auricles  of  the  heart  after  it  has  been 
circulated  by  the  arteries  through  the  various  tis- 
sues of  the  body.     They  are  thinner  and  more  del- 
icate in  structure  than  the  arteries,  so  that  when 
emptied  of  their  blood,  they  become  flattened  and 
collapsed. 

163.  The  veins  commence  by  minute  radicles  in 
the  capillaries,  which  are  everywhere  distributed 
through  the  textures  of  the  body,  and  coalesce  to 
constitute  larger  and  larger  branches,  till  they  ter- 
minate in  the  large  trunks  which  convey  the  dark> 
colored  blood  directly  to  the  heart. 

164.  The  external,  or  cellular  coat  of  the  veins, 


PHYSIOLOGY.  243 

is  dense  and  firm,  resembling  the  cellular  tunic  of 
the  arteries.  The  middle  coat  is  fibrous,  like  that 
of  the  arteries,  but  extremely  thin.  The  internal 
coat  is  serous  and  also  similar  to  that  of  the  arte- 
ries. It  is  continuous  with  the  lining  membrane 
of  the  heart  at  one  extremity,  and  with  the  lining 
membrane  of  the  capillaries  at  the  other. 

165.  The  arteries  are  the  cylindrical  tubes  that 
convey  the  blood  from  the  heart  to  every  part  of 
the  system. 

166.  They  are  dense  in  structure,  and  preserve, 
for  the  most  part,  the  cylindrical  form,  when  emp- 
tied of  their  blood,  which  is  their  condition  after 
death. 

167.  The  arteries  are  composed  of  three  coats. 
The  external,  or  cellular  coat,  is  firm  and  strong; 
the  middle,  or  fibrous  coat,  is  composed  of  yellow- 
ish fibers.     This  coat  is  elastic,  fragile,  and  thicker 
than  the  external  coat.    The  internal  coat  is  a  thin, 
serous  membrane,  which  lines  the  interior  of  the 
artery,  and  gives  it  the  smooth  polish  which  that 
surface  presents. 

168.  The  capillaries  constitute  a  microscopic  net 
work,  and  are  so  distributed  through  every  part  of 
the  body  as  to  render  it  impossible  to  introduce  the 
smallest  needle  beneath  the  skin,  without  wound- 
ing several  of  these  fine  vessels. 

169.  The  capillaries  are  remarkable  for  the  uni- 
formity of  diameter,  and  for  the  constant  divisions 
and    communications   which   take   place   between 
them. 


244        THE  NORMAL  QUESTION  BOOK. 

170.  The  capillaries  inosculate,  on  the  one  hana, 
with  the  terminal  extremity  of  the  arteries,  and  on 
the  other,  with  the  commencement  of  the  veins. 
They  establish   the   communication   between   the 
termination  of  the  arteries  and  the  beginning  of 
the  veins. 

171.  The  important  operations  of  secretion  and 
the  conversion  of  the  nutrient  materials   of  the 
blood  into  bone,    muscle,  etc.,  are  performed  in 
these  vessels. 

172.  Animal  blood,  after  standing  for  some  time, 
contains  1st,  red  and  white  corpuscles;  2d,  animal 
fibrine;  3d,  water;  and  4th,  albumen.     The   first 
two  form  the  clot,  the  remaining  two  the  serum. 
The  blood  contains  dissolved  within  it  three  gases  : 
Carbonic  acid,  oxygen,   and  a  small  quantity  of 
nitrogen.     One  hundred  volumes  contain  about  50 
volumes  of  these  gases  collectively. 

173.  The   specific  gravity   of  blood  —  1,  very 
nearly ;  its  temperature  =  100°  F.,  nearly. 

174.  The   living  body   contains   a   quantity   of 
blood  of  about  one-tenth  of  its  own  weight. 

175.  Ans.  No.  1.  The  use  of  the  red  corpuscles 
seems  to  be  to  convey  oxygen  from  the  lungs  to  all 
parts  of  the  body. 

Ans.  No.  2.  The  function  of  the  red  corpus- 
cles seems  to  be  to  convey  oxygen  to  the  tissues, 
and  as  this  is  the  agent  which  is  continually  pro- 
moting the  change  or  waste  of  the  system,  these 
corpuscles  seem  to  be  the  great  agents  for  disassim- 


PHYSIOLOGY.  245 

ilating  the  tissues  and  the  blood  itself.  The  color- 
less or  white  corpuscles  seem  to  be  the  agents  by 
which  the  repair  of  the  body  is  effected,  since  they 
are  greatly  augmented  in  number  when  there  is  a 
large  wound  to  be  healed,  or  when  there  is  a  great 
amount  of  internal  or  external  inflammation. 

176.  The  red  blood  corpuscles   differ  from  the 
white  in  this,  that  they  are  smaller  in  size,  but 
larger  in  number,  and  of  a  less  changeable  nature. 

177.  The  following  are  four  uses  of  the  blood: 

(1)  It  feeds  the  different  parts  of  the  body, 
which  depend  upon  it  for  their  maintenance. 

(2)  It  provides  the  entire  body  with  warmth 
and  moisture. 

(3)  It  carries  oxygen  to   the  tissues  which 
need  this  gas. 

(4)  It  gathers  refuse  matters  throughout  the 
body,  and  conveys  them  to  places  whence  they  may 
be  discharged. 

178.  The  respiratory  organs  are  the  lungs  [lights], 
the  trachea  (wind-pipe),  the  bronchia  (sub-divisions 
of  the  trachea),  and  the  air-vesicles  (air-cells  at  the 
fextremities  of  the  bronchia). 

179.  The  diaphragm  (mid-riff),  ribs,  and  several 
muscles,  also  aid  in  the  respiratory  process.. 

180.  They  are  two  conical-shaped  organs,  occu- 
pying the  cavity  of  the  chest  on  each  side  of  the 
heart,  from  which  they  are  separated  by  a  mem- 
branous partition,  the  mediastinum.     Their  color 

V^THE  ' 
UNIVERSITY 


246         THE  NORMAL  QUESTION  BOOK. 

is  pinkish  gray  marked  with  black.  Each  lung  is 
divided  into  two  lobes  by  a  long,  deep  fissure.  In 
the  right  lung  the  upper  lobe  is  subdivided  by  a 
second  fissure.  The  air  cells  in  each  lobe  commu- 
nicate with  each  other,  but  not  with  those  of  an- 
other lobe.  The  lungs  rest  on  the  convex  surface 
of  the  diaphragm.  The  root  of  each  lung  comprises 
the  pulmonary  artery  and  veins,  and  bronchial 
tubes,  with  the  bronchial  vessels  and  pulmonary 
plexuses  of  nerves.  They  are  comprised  of  rami- 
fications of  the  bronchial  tubes,  terminating  in  in- 
tercellular passages  and  air  cells.  It  is  supposed 
that  there  are  not  less  than  one  hundred  million 
air  cells  in  the  lungs.  The  mucous  membrane  of 
the  lungs  presents  an  extent  of  surface  of  twenty- 
one  thousand  square  inches ;  supposed  to  be  greater 
than  the  entire  surface  of  the  skin  of  the  body. 
All  the  air  tubes,  vessels,  arid  nerves  of  the  lungs 
are  closely  knit  together  into  one  general  texture, 
by  a  delicate  cellular  tissue,  and  the  whole  mass, 
on  each  side,  is  enveloped  in  the  serous  membrane 
as  an  external  coat. 

181.  The  trachea  is  a  cartilaginous  tube  about 
one  inch  in  diameter,  made  up  of  from  fifteen  to 
twenty  cartilaginous  rings,  commencing  at  a  point 
nearly  opposite  the  fifth  cervical  vertebra,  and  ex- 
tending as  low  as  the  second  dorsal,  or  top  of  the 
sternum,  where  it  divides  into  two  bronchi  extend- 
ing to  each  lung.  These  segments  of  the  trachea 
are  not  perfect  rings,  since  they  complete  only 
about  five-sixths  of  a  circle,  the  remaining  sixth 


PHYSIOLOGY.  247 

consisting    *>f    smooth    or    involuntary    muscular 
fiber. 


182.  An   air  cell  is  a  thin  and   elastic,  funnel- 
ehaped  membrane  of  about  ^  of  an  inch  in  diame- 
ter. 

183.  The  capillaries  in  the  lungs  serve  to  expose 
the  blood  to  the  action  of  the  air.     This  is  done  by 
(1)  spreading  it  over  a  large  surface,  (2)  spreading 
it  in  thin   streams,  (3)  protecting  it  by  merely  a 
delicate  cover. 

184.  The  main  difference  between  arterial   and 
venous  blood,  is  that  the  latter  contains  less  oxygen 
but  more  carbonic  acid  gas  than  the  former. 

185.  Respiration,  or  breathing,  is  that  process  by 
which  air  is  taken  into  the  lungs  and  expelled  from 
them. 

186.  The  object  of  respiration  is,  1st.   To  supply 
the  system  with  oxygen,  which  is  essential  to  the 
generation   of  animal   heat;   2d.   To   convert  the 
chyle  into  blood.     This  is  done  by  the  oxygen  of 
the  inspired  air;  3d.  To  relieve  the  organs  of  the 
body  of  the  principal  elements  (carbon  and  hydro- 
gen) that  compose  the  old  and  useless  particles  of 
matter. 

187.  (1)  The  volume  of  air  ordinarily  present  in 
the  lungs  is  about  twelve  pints. 

(2)  The  volume  of  air  received  by  the  lungs 
at  an  ordinary  inspiration  is  one  pint. 

(3)  The   volume  of   air  expelled  from  the 


248        THE  NORMAL  QUESTION  BOOK. 

lungs  at  an  ordinary  expiration  is  a  little  less  than 
one  pint. 

(4)  Of  the   volume   of  air   received  by  the 
lungs  at  one  inspiration,  only  one-fourth   part  is 
decomposed  at  one  action  of  the  heart. 

(5)  The  quantity  of  blood  that  flows  to  the 
lungs,  to  be  acted  upon  by  the  air  at  one  action  of 
the  heart,  is  two  ounces,  and  this  is  acted  upon  in 
less  than  one  second  of  time. 

(6)  The  quantity  of  blood  in  the  whole  body 
of  the  human  adult,  is  twenty-five  pounds  avoir- 
dupois, or  twenty  pints. 

(7)  In  the  mutual  action  that  takes  place  be- 
tween the  air  and  blood,  every  twenty-four  hours, 
the  air  loses  thirty-seven  ounces  of  oxygen,  and 
the  blood  fourteen  ounces  of  carbon. 

188.  Three  points  in  common : 

(1)  Both  operate  by  expansion  and  contrac- 
tion. 

(2)  Both  are  involuntary  organs;  that  is,  on 
ordinary  occasions  they  act  independently  of  the 
will. 

(3)  Both  are  indispensable  to  the  mainten- 
ance of  life. 

Three  points  of  difference : 

(1)  The  lungs  contain  air ;  the  heart  contains 
blood. 

(2)  The  lungs  contain  bronchial  tubes,  air- 
cells  and  blood-vessels ;  the  heart  has  two  parts, 
called  the  right  and  left  side,  each  part  being  again 
divided  into  auricle  and  ventricle. 


PHYSIOLOGY.  249 

(3)  The  lungs   purify  the   blood;  the  heart 
propels  the  blood  through  the  body. 

189.  The  organs  which  produce  animal  heat  are 
essentially  those  employed  in  the  act  of  breathing 
and  the  circulation  of  the  blood. 

190.  The  theory  which  now  is  most  readily  ac- 
cepted makes  the  function  of  animal  heat  to  be  a 
chemico-vital  one,  or  a  chemical  change  (oxydiza- 
tion)   dependent  upon  vital  energy,  being  nearly 
analogous  to  the  burning  of  a  candle  or  the  com- 
bustion of  wood  and  coal  in  the  stove. 

191.  The  temperature  of  the  human  system  is  98° 
F.,  and  this  it  is  invariably  found  to  be  in  all  cli- 
mates and  seasons,  when  the  individual  is  in  per- 
fect health. 

192.  The  manner  in  which  the  body  is  kept  at 
the  uniform  temperature  of  98°,  is  a  subject  of  deep 
interest.     It  is  partly  accomplished  by  radiation, 
since  the  body  is  ordinarily  warmer  than  the  air 
about  it,  and  also  partly  by  inhaling  the  cool  air 
into  the  air  passages. 

193.  The  larynx  in  all  animals  is  the  essential 
organ  for  the  production  of  the  voice. 

194.  A  cartilaginous  tube,  imperfectly   conical, 
the  base  directed  upwards,  made  up  of  distinct  por- 
tions or  segments  slightly  movable  upon  one  an- 
other, and  with  a  certain  portion  of  the  channel 
lengthened  into  a  narrow  and  elongated  opening, 
constitutes  a  larynx. 


250  THE   NORMAL    QUESTION   BOOK. 

195.  Across  the  middle  of  the  larynx  is  a  trans- 
verse partition,  formed  by  two  folds  of  the  lining 
mucous  membrane,  stretching  from  either  side,  but 
not  quite  meeting  in  the  middle  line.     They  thus 
leave,  in  the  middle  line,  a  chink  or  slit,  running 
from  the  front  to  the  back,  called  the  glottis.    The 
two  edges  of  this  slit  are  not  round  and  flabby,  but 
sharp,  and,  so  to  speak,  clean  cut;    they  are  also 
strengthened  by  a  quantity  of   elastic  tissue,  the 
fibers  of  which  are  disposed  lengthwise  in  them. 
These  sharp,  free  edges  of  the  glottis  are  the  so- 
called  vocal  cords  or  vocal  ligaments. 

196.  The  essential  conditions  of  the  production 
of  the  human  voice  are:    (a)  The  existence  of  the 
so-called  vocal  chords,     (b)  The  parallelism  of  the 
edges  of  these  chords,  without  which  they  will  not 
vibrate  in  such  a  manner  as  to  give  out  sound,    (c) 
A  certain  degree  of  lightness  of  the  vocal  chords^ 
without  which  they  will  not  vibrate  quickly  enough 
to  produce  sound,     (d)  The  passage  of  a  current 
of  air  between  the  parallel  edges  of  the  vocal  chords 
of  sufficient  power  to  set  the  chords  vibrating. 

197.  The  secretory  organs  are  exhalants,  follicles- 
and  glands. 

198.  The  exhalants  were  supposed  to  be  termina: 
tions  of  arteries  or  capillaries.     The  external  exha- 
lants  terminate   on   the  skin   and   mucous  mem^ 
branes ;  the  internal  in  the  cellular  and  medullary 
tissues. 

199.  The  follicles  are  small  bags,  or  sacs,  situated 


PHYSIOLOGY.  251 

in  the  true  skin  and  mucous  membrane.  The 
pores  seen  on  the  skin  are  the  outlets  of  these 
bodies. 

200.  The  glands  are  soft,  fleshy  organs,  and  aa 
various  in  their  structure  as  the  secretions,  which 
it  is  their  function  to  produce.     Each  gland  is  com- 
posed of  many  small  lobules  united  in  a  compact 
and  distinct  mass,  that  communicates  by  a  small 
duct  with  the  principal  outlet,  or  duct  of  the  organ. 
Every  gland  is  supplied  with  arteries,  veins,  lym, 
phatics,  and  nerves. 

201.  Secretion  is  one  of  the  most  obscure  and 
mysterious  functions  of  the  animal  economy.     "  It 
is  that   process   by  which  various   substances  are 
separated  from  the  blood,  either  with  or  without 
experiencing  any  change  during  their  separation." 

202.  The  skin  is   the  external   covering  of  the 
body.     It  consists  of  two  layers — the  outside  skin 
or  the  epidermis,  and  the  inner  one  or  dermis. 

203.  The  epidermis  serves  to  protect  the  sensi- 
tive lower  skin  or  dermis,  and   to   moderate   the 
evaporation  of  fluid  from  the  blood  vesse?s.     The 
dermis    serves    to    invest    the    excretory    glands ; 
on   its  surface  are   the  sensitive  touch-corpuscles. 
The  dermis  is  the  deeper  portion  of  the  skin ;  it  is 
denser,  more  elastic  and  more  tender  than  the  epi- 
dermis.    When  cut  it  bleeds  very  freely,  while  thtf 
latter  does  not  bleed  at  all. 

204.  The  general  properties  of  the  skin  are  tough 
ness,  flexibility  and  elasticity. 

205.  Owing  to  its  toughness,  it  serves  as  the  pnr 


252  THE   NORMAL   QUESTION   BOOK. 

tecting  cover  of  the  body ;  in  virtue  of  its  flexibility, 
it  sbields  the  inner  parts  from  violence;  and,  on 
account  of  its  elasticity,  it  yields  readily  to  the 
movements  of  the  body.  It  is  also  the  principal 
organ  of  touch. 

206.  The  hair  and  nails  are  peculiar  forms  of  the 
epidermis.      The   former  is   composed    of    horny 
scales  and  cells,  closely  packed  together. 

207.  The  secretion  of  the  skin  consists  of  two 
different  fluids,  one  oily,  the  other  watery.     The 
oily  one  is  secreted  mostly  in  the  scalp  and  the  face, 
where  the  skin  is  largely  supplied  with  hair.     The 
other  is  called  perspiration  or  sweat,  the  two  terms 
being  habitually   taken   synonymously,   although 
there  is  this  difference  between  them :  perspiration 
is  an  insensible  excretion,  which  evaporates  on  the 
skin ;  sweat  is  a  sensible  secretion,  composed  of  the 
same  fluid  as  the  other,  but  appearing  on  the  skin 
in  the  form  of  drops. 

208.  Functions  of  the  nervous  system: 

(1)  It  connects  the  different  parts  and  organs 
of  the  body  into  an  organic  unit  or  whole. 

(2)  It  animates  or  governs  all  movements  of 
the  muscles,  whether  voluntary  or  not. 

(3)  It  regulates  the   temperature,   nutrition 
and  secretion  of  the  body. 

(4)  It  controls  the  processes  of  the  organic 
life  of  the  body. 

(5)  It  receives  impressions  which  are  gener- 
ated by  its  terminal  branches. 

(6)  It  conveys  impressions  to  different  por- 
tions of  the  body. 


PHYSIOLOGY.  25S 

(7)  It  can  generate  influences  which  no  outer 
organ  or  system  can  produce,  such  as  sight,  smell  or 
taste.  By  means  of  this  function,  it  puts  the  body 
in  direct  communication  with  the  other  world. 

209.  The  nervous  system,  although  a  continuous 
substance,  is  conveniently  subdivided  into  two  sys- 
tems: (1)  The  cerebro-spinal  system;  and  (2)  The 
sympathetic  system. 

210.  The  cerebro-spinal  system   comprises  the 
cerebro-spinal  axis,  that  is,  the  brain  and  the  spinal 
cord,  together  with  the  cerebral  and  spinal  nerves 
which  emanate  from  this  axis. 

211.  The  sympathetic  system  contains  the  chain 
of  sympathetic  ganglia  and  the  nerves  which  they 
give  off. 

212.  The  brain  is  a  very  soft  substance,  forming, 
in  man  the  enlarged  upper  terminus  of  the  spinal 
cord.     It  is  encased  in  the  cavity  of  the  cranium, 
which  it  fills,  and  from  which  it  is  difficult  to  be 
extracted  entire.    The  brain  substance  of  man  gen- 
erally varies  in  weight  from  forty  to  sixty  ounces, 
and  it  is  universally  admitted  that,  as  a  rule,  the 
quantity  of  brain  substance  corresponds  to  the  in- 
tellectual powers  of  the  individual,  although  it  is 
believed   that  the  quality  of  this  substance  also 
plays  an  important  part.     The  brain  consists   of 
cells  and  fibers  which  are  rendered  visible  only  by 
a  good  microscope. 

213.  The  brain  is  divided  into  the  large  brain  or 
cerebrum,  the  small  brain  or  cerebellum — only  one- 
eighth  as  large  as  the  former — and  the  enlarged 
spinal  cord  or  medulla  oblougata. 


254        (THE  NORMAL  QUESTION  BOOK. 

214.  The  cerebrum  and  cerebellum  consist  each 
of  two  hemispheres,  one  on  the  right,  the  other  on 
the  left  side.     The  surface  of  the  cerebrum  is  cov- 
ered with  a  great  many  foldings  and  windings  or 
convolutions,  irregular  in  form  and  direction  ;  these 
are   separated  from  each  other    by  deep  furrows. 
The  cerebellum  also  has  convolutions,  but  they  are 
of  a  more  regular  form  and  direction. 

215.  The  spinal  cord  is  the  downward  continua- 
tion of  the  medulla  oblongata.     It  is  a  soft  sub- 
stance, contained  in  a  bony  cavity,  formed  by  the 
vertebral  column  or  back-bone.     It  extends  nearly 
to  the  sacrum;  it  is  furrowed  like  the  brain  into 
two  lateral,  symmetric  parts.     Between  these  two 
parts  —  that   is,   in    the   centre   of   the   cord   and 
through  its  entire  length — runs  a  fine  canal,  which 
originates  in  a  point  between  the  cerebellum  and 
the  medulla  oblongata. 

416,  The  cerebro  spinal  nerves  originate  in  both 
the  brain  and  the  spinal  cord,  whence  they  ramify 
and  spread  all  over  the  body.  They  have  the  form 
of  fibers  and  cells. 

217.  The  sympathetic  system  consists,  like  the 
'brain,  of  cells  and  fibers.     It  is  situated  in  front 

arid  at  the  sides  of  the  spinal  column ;  its  ganglia 
or  nerve  cells  are  connected  with  one  another,  and 
with  the  spinal  nerves  by  nerve-cords. 

218.  The  nervous  system  appears  to  be  composed 
of  two  distinct  substances — the  gray  and  the  white. 
In  the  cerebrum  and  cerebellum  the  white  substance 
is  contained  within  the  gray;  in  the  medulla  ob- 
longata and  spinal  cord  the  gray  substance  is  en- 


PHYSIOLOGY.  255 

closed  in  the  white.     The  nervous  fibres  and  tubes 
are  white ;  the  cells  are  gray. 

219.  The  main  functions  of  the  cerebrum  seem 
to  be  the  manifestation  of  intellectual  powers  and 
the  will. 

220.  The   functions   of  the  cerebellum  seem  to 
consist  in  the  regulation  of  muscular  movements. 

221.  The  function  of  the  medulla  oblongata  is  to 
generate  and  control  the  motions  of  respiration  and 
deglutition. 

222.  The  functions  of  the  spinal  cord  are  (1)  to 
transmit  sensitive  impressions  from  its  outer  nerves 
to  the  brain  ;  (2)  to  transmit  the  manifestations  of 
the  will  from  the  brain  to  the  spinal  motor  nerves ; 
(3)  to  originate  nerve-force  independently  of  the 
brain  whenever  a  stimulus  is  applied. 

223.  The  functions   of  the   sympathetic  system 
seem  to  be,  to  control  the  action  of  the  alimentary 
canal,  the  glands,  the  blood-vessels  and  the  heart. 

224.  Nerves  are  generally  endowed  with  motor 
and  sensory  properties,  and  others  which  serve  the 
purpose  of  generating  sensations. 

225.  Sensory  organs  are  tools,  or  instruments, 
capable  (1)  of  receiving  impressions  from  the  outer 
world,  and   (2)  of  making   us  conscious  of  those 
impressions.  They  are  merely  the  peculiarly  shaped 
termination  of  a  particular  nerve.     They  are  five 
in  number,  viz;  that  of  sight,  hearing,  touch,  taste 
and  smell. 

226.  The  structure  of  the  sense  of  touch  consists 


256        THE  NORMAL  QUESTION  BOOK. 

in  nerves,  which  are  spread  out  under  the  epider- 
mis, and  within  the  dermis  or  cutis. 

227.  The  structure  of  the  sense  of  taste  consists 
of  papillae  spread  over  the  tongue  and  portions  of 
the  cavity  of  the  mouth.     These  papillae  are  the 
terminations  of  certain  nerves  coming  from  the 
brain. 

228.  The  structure  of  the  sense  of  smell  consists 
in  olfactory  nerves,  which  are  spread  over  the  in- 
terior surface  of  the  nasal  cavity. 

229.  The  structure  of  the  sense  of  sight  consists 
in   two   eye-balls,   each   of  which    comprises,  (1) 
three  distinct  coats,  and  (2)  an  optical  apparatus. 

230.  The  three  coats  of  the  eye-ball  are: 

(1)  The  sclerotic  coat. 

(2)  The  choroid  coat. 

(3)  The  retina. 

231.  The  optical  apparatus  is  made  up  of: 

(1)  The  cornea. 

(2)  The  aqueous  humor. 

(3)  The  crystalline  lens. 

(4)  The  vitreous  humor. 

232.  The  structure  of  the  sense  of  hearing  con- 
gists  of  two  ears,  each  of  which  comprises : 

(1)  The  outer  ear. 

(2)  The  middle  ear. 

(3)  The  inner  ear  or  labyrinth. 

233.  The  outer  ear  is  peculiarly  adapted  to  col- 
lect and  transmit  waves  of  sound. 

234.  The  middle  ear  consists  of  (1)  the  external 
tube  and  (2)  the  drum  or  tympanum.     These  are 
separated  from  each  other  by  the  tympanic  mem- 


PHYSIOLOGY.  257 

brane.     The  drum  contains  three  small  bones;  the 
hammer,  the  anvil  and  the  stapes. 

235.  The  labyrinth  or  inner  ear  consists  of  the 
vestibule,  three  semi-circular  canals,  and  -the  coch- 
lea. The  labyrinth  is  filled  with  liquids,  in  which 
are  floating  the  terminal  fibres  and  filaments  of  the 
auditory  nerve. 


258        THE  NORMAL  QUESTION  BOOK. 


QUESTIONS  ON  THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF 
TEACHING. 


1.  What  does  the  theory  and  practice  of  teach- 
ing embrace  ? 

2.  Of  what  does  school  economy  treat? 

3.  Define  methods  of  instruction. 

4.  What  do  you  understand  by  methods  of  cul- 
ture? 

5.  What  could  be  treated  of  under  the  history 
of  education? 

6.  What  should  be  taken  into  consideration  in 
making  preparations  for  the  school  ? 

7.  What  should  be  taken  into  consideration  in 
selecting  a  site  for  a  school-house  ? 

8.  What  do  you  consider  to  be  the  requisites  of 
good  school-grounds? 

9.  State  the  objects  of  graded  schools. 

10.  What  branches    of   knowledge    should    be 
taught  in  primary  schools? 

11.  Give  a  list  of  grammar  school  studies. 

12.  What  branches  should  be  embraced  in  the 
high  school  course? 

13.  Upon  what  should  the  size  of  a  school-house 
depend  ? 

14.  What  is  the  best  form  for  school-houses  ? 


TEACHING.  259 

15.  How  should  a  school-house  be  warmed? 

16.  How  should  a  school-room  be  ventilated? 

17.  With  what  furniture  should  a  school-house 
£e  provided  ? 

18.  With  what  apparatus  should  schools  be  sup- 
plied ? 

19.  Of  what  use  are  school  records? 

20.  What  is  meant   by  the   organization   of  a 
gehool? 

21.  Give  an  outline  of  work  preliminary  to  the 
organization  of  a  school. 

22.  What  advantages  will  be  gained  by  forming 
Acquaintances   of  parents   and   pupils   before  the 
opening  of  the  school? 

23.  What  should  be  the  chief  business  of  the 
teacher  on  the  first  day  of  school  ?  • 

24.  Give   directions    that  should    be    observed 
closely  during  the  first  day  of  school. 

25.  How  should  a  school  be  opened? 

26.  How  many  and  what  grades  should  there  be 
in  the  public  schools? 

27.  What  are  the  advantages  of  a  programme? 

28.  What  are  employments  of  a  school  ? 

29.  What  are  the  objects  of  study  ? 

30.  By  what  principles  should  incentives  to  study 
be  tested  ? 

31.  Name  incentives  to  study  which  are  of  doubt- 
ful propriety. 

32.  What  are  proper  incentives  to  study? 

33.  What  are  the  objects  of  education? 

34.  Since  the  recitation  must  embrace  the  objects 
of  education,  what  may  be  considered  the  ends  of 
the  recitation? 


260  THE  NORMAL   QUESTION  BOOK. 

35.  How  should  the  recitation  he  conducted  ? 

36.  What  might  be  considered  requisites  for  the 
recitation  ? 

37.  What  preparation  should  the  teacher  make 
for  the  recitation? 

38.  Why  is  it  necessary  to  take  exercise  ? 

39.  Define  school  government. 

40.  Under  what  heads  may  school  government 
be  embraced? 

41.  Define  ethics. 

42.  Define  school  ethics. 

43.  Name  the  important  factors  in  the  school. 

44.  What  maybe  considered  as  some  of  the  most 
important  qualifications  of  the  teacher  ? 

45.  What  may  be  considered  as  the  school  duties 
of  pupils? 

46.  Define  discipline. 

47.  Into  how  many  and  what  species  may  school 
government  be  resolved  ? 

48.  What  may  be  considered  as  proper  penalties  ? 

49.  What  may  be  considered  as  improper  penal- 
ties? 

50.  What  things  should  the  teacher  avoid? 

51.  What  things  should  every  teacher  perform  ? 
62.  What  is  education  ? 

53.  What  is  teaching? 

54.  What  is  learning? 

55.  In   what  divisions  are  the  faculties  of  the 
mind  comprised  ? 

56.  What  faculty  comes  first  in  the  natural  order 
of  development? 

57.  How  is  the  intellect  developed  ? 

58.  What  are  the  sources  of  knowledge  ? 


TEACHING.  261 

59.  "What  is  that  knowledge  called  which  man 
derives  through  the  senses? 

60.  What  does  this  knowledge  include  ? 

61.  What  is  that  knowledge  called  which  is  de- 
rived through  reason  ? 

62.  What  does  this  knowledge  include  ? 

63.  What  should  a  system  of  education  have  for 
its  object? 

64.  What  conditions  does  teaching  presuppose  ? 

65.  What  does  education  do  for  the  individual? 

66.  What  does  education  do  for  a  people? 

67.  What  are  some  of  the  most  common  evils  of 
our  schools? 

68.  What  should  form  the  foundation  for  a  sys- 
tem of  teaching? 

69.  Give  a  classification  of  the  elements  of  peda- 
gogics. 

70.  What  other  names  are  sometimes  applied  to 
these  elements  ? 

71.  Into  what  divisions  is  physical  education  di- 
vided? 

72.  Define  diatetics. 

73.  Define  gymnastics. 

74.  What  is  the  special  direction  which  the  ac- 
tivity of  apprehending  intelligence  takes? 

75.  When  is  the  perceptive  faculty  most  active? 

76.  When  is  the  conceptive  faculty  most  active? 

77.  When  is  the  thinking  faculty  most  active? 

78.  From  the  foregoing,  what   epochs  may  be 
distinguished? 

79.  What  appears  in  the  act  of  learning? 

80.  Give  the  names  of  some  of  the  most  impor- 
tant educational  reformers. 


262  THE   NORMAL   QUESTION   BOOK. 


ANSWERS  TO  QUESTIONS  ON  THEORY  AND 
PRACTICE  OF  TEACHING 


1.  All  that  relates  to  the  theory  of  teaching  or 
to  its  practice  may  be  embraced  under  the  four  fol- 
lowing heads:    1.  School  economy ;  2.  Methods  of 
instruction;    3.  Methods  of  culture;   4.   The  his- 
tory of  education. 

2.  Under  the  head  of  school  economy  could  be 
considered  the  preparation  for,  and  the  organiza- 
tion of,  the  school,  and  the  conditions  of  its  effi- 
cient workings. 

3.  Under  the  head  of  methods  of  instruction  an, 
investigation  could  be  made  into  the  nature  of 
knowledge  and  the  methods  of  imparting  it. 

4.  Under  the  head  of  methods  of  culture,  the 
physical  and  mental  constitution  of  man  could  be 
examined,  and  an  effort  could  be  made  to  arrive  at 
the  best  means  of  developing  and  strengthening  it. 

5.  Under  the   head   of    history  of   education, 
there  could  be  related  the  success  or  the  failure, 
the  causes  and  effects,  of  the  various  educational 


TEACHING.  263 

systems  and  efforts  which  have  characterized  the 
past. 

6.  In  making  preparation  for  the  school,  the 
following  particulars  must  be  regarded : 

(1)  School  sites.         (5)  School-houses. 

(2)  School  grounds.  (6)  School  furniture. 

(3)  School  grades.     (7)  School  apparatus. 

(4)  School  studies.     (8)  School  records. 

f.  Several  things  must  be  taken  into  considera- 
tion in  selecting  a  site  for  a  school-house.  The 
most  important  of  them  are : — 

(1)  Convenience  of  access. 

(2)  Suitability  of  the  grounds  and  surround- 
ings. 

(3)  Healthiness  of  the  neigborhood. 

(4)  Beauty  of  the  location. 

8.  (1)  Grounds  about  a  school-house  should  be 
thoroughly  drained,  so  as  to  ensure  dryness  in  all 
seasons. 

(2)  They  should  be  leveled  and  sodded. 

(3)  They  should  be  planted  with  trees  for  shade 
and  with  hardy  shrubs  for  ornament. 

(4)  They  should  be  provided  with  a  house  for 
fuel  and  separate  closets  for  the  accommodation  of 
the  pupils  of  both  sexes. 

(5)  The  grounds  should  be  well  supplied  with, 
water. 

(6)  They  should  be  enclosed  by  a  neat  fence. 

9.  Some  of  the  most  prominent  objects  the  friends 
of  education  have  had  in  view,  in  advocating  a 
system  of  graded  schools,  are  the  following :  they 


264        THE  NORMAL  QUESTION  BOOK. 

economize  the  labor  of  instruction ;  lessen  its  cost; 
make  teaching  more  effective ;  promote  good  order 
in  school ;  prompt  the  ambition  of  pupils ;  provide 
instruction  in  the  higher  branches  of  learning ;  and 
remove  the  necessity  of  children's  leaving  home  to 
obtain  a  good  education. 

10.  Children   in   primary  schools   ought   to   be 
taught  the  names  of  the  sounds  of  letters  of  the 
alphabet;  and  they  ought  also  to  receive  careful 
instruction  in  pronouncing,  spelling,  defining,  ele- 
mentary reading,  oral   composition,  drawing  and 
writing,  and  elementary  arithmetic. 

11.  A  list  of  grammar  school  studies  must  em« 
brace  spelling,  defining,  reading,  composition,  ele* 
merits    of   grammar,   geography,   history   of   the 
United  States,  drawing  and  writing,  arithmetic, 
oral  and  written,  vocal  music. 

12.  The  pri-ncipal  studies  embraced   in  a   high 
school  course  are  included  in  the  following  classifi- 
cation:   Language,  inductive   sciences,   deductive 
sciences,  and  history. 

13.  The  size  of  a  school-house  should  mainly 
depend  upon  the  number  of  pupils  it  is  intended 
to  accommodate.     A  house  designed  for  an  un- 
graded school,  to  be  taught  by  a  single  teacher, 
should  not  contain  less  than  nine  hundred  square 
feet.     A  house  built  to  accommodate  fifty  to  eighty 
pupils,  and  provide  them  with  a  recitation  room, 
should  contain  not  less  than  fifteen  hundred  square 
feet ;  and  one  to  accommodate  from  eighty  to  one 
hundred  and  twenty  pupils,  with  two  recitatifi 


TEACHING.  265 

rooms,  should  have  an  area  of  something  like  two 
thousand  square  feet. 

14.  The  best  form  for  school-houses  in  rural  dis- 
tricts is  rectangular,  the  door  entering  at  the  south 
end,  and  the  north  end   being  without  windows. 
The  ceiling   must  be  from  twelve  to  sixteen  feet 
high,  as  it  will  add  to  the  beauty  of  the  room  and 
to  the  health  and  comfort  of  its  occupants. 

15.  The    common    mode  in   which  our    school- 
houses  are  heated  is  very  objectionable.     If  a  stove 
must  be  placed  in  the  room,  it  should  be  surrounded 
with  a  tin  casing  made  to  extend  from  the  floor  to 
about  one  foot  above  the  top  of  the  stove.     There 
should  be  a  door  in  the  casing  for  putting  in  fuel ; 
and  a  trunk  for  the  conveyance  of  fresh  air  should 
start  outside  of  the  building,  run  under  the  floor, 
and  communicate  directly  with  the  stove. 

16.  All  the  windows  of  a  school-room  should  be 
hung  with  pulleys,  in  order  that  they  may  be  easily 
raised  or  lowered.     If  windows  and  doors  are  skill- 
fully used,  a  tolerably  good  degree  of  ventilation 
can  be  secured. 

17.  (1)  The  furniture  of  a  school-house  should  be 
of  the  most  approved  and  convenient  pattern. 

(2)  The  desks   should  be  so  arranged  as  to 
enable  all  pupils  to  pass  to  and  from  their  seats 
without  creating  confusion  in  any  part  of  the  room. 

(3)  Every  school  should  be  provided  with  a 
library  of  reference-books.     The  most  comprehen- 
sive English  dictionary,  a  geographical  gazetteer, 
a  biographical  dictionary,  a  popular  encyclopedia, 


266        THE  NORMAL  QUESTION  BOOK. 

sets  of  historical  and  physiological  charts  and  out-. 
line  maps  should  be  considered  indispensable  arti- 
cles in  the  furnishing  of  every  school-house. 

(4)  The  teacher's  desk  should  be  so  constructed 
as  to  be  well  adapted  to  the  uses  for  which  it  is  in- 
tended. A  plain  business  office  desk,  with  draw- 
ers, shelves,  closets  and  book-rack,  is  perhaps  the 
most  convenient  form. 

18.  Among  the  articles  of  apparatus  which  should 
be  found  in  all  schools  are  the  following:   A  set  of 
cards   for  teaching  the   alphabet,   pronunciation, 
spelling,  and  elementary  reading,  with  a  stand  to 
hang  them  upon ;  several  sets  of  letter  blocks,  and 
a  chart  of  elementary  sounds;  writing-charts;  cards 
for  drawing,  both  large  and  small,  to  suit  classes 
or  individuals,  and  a  set  of  objects  for  drawing;  a 
numeral  frame,  and  sets  of  square  and  cube  root 
blocks;  a  globe,  a  set  of  outline  maps,  and  a  tellu- 
rian;  charts  of  history;  a  case  of  minerals   and 
curiosities,  a  large  collection  of  objects  for  object, 
lessons,  some  pictures  and  engravings  intended  for 
the  same  purpose;  a  thermometer. 

19.  To  aid  the  teacher  in  his  work;  to  give  in- 
formation to  parents  and  school  officers;  to  furnish 
educational  statistics;  to  exert  a  beneficial  influence 
upon  the  pupils. 

20.  School  organization  is  a  system  of  arrange- 
ment  designed    to   secure   constant   employment, 
efficient  instruction  and  moral  control.     It  aims  at 
providing  the  means  of  instructing  and  educating 
the  greatest  number  in  the  most  efficient  manner, 


TEACHING.  267 

and  by  the  most  economical  expenditure  of  time 
and  money. 

21.  1.  The  young  teacher  should  consider  well  his 
adaptation  to  a  particular  school  before  engaging 
it.     2.  He  should  know  something  of  its  peculiar 
difficulties,  then  weigh  the  question  of  his  fitness 
to  cope  with  them.     3.  The  teacher  should  make 
known  his  views  and  plans  of  teaching  and  man- 
agement to  school  officers  while  negotiating.     4. 
The  contract  with  school  officers  should  always  be 
in  writing;  it  should  bind  the  officers  to  the  sup- 
port of  the  teacher  in  all  just  measures.     5.  The 
teacher  should  visit  the  district  and  make  acquaint- 
ances of  parent*  before  opening  of  school. 

22.  Such  visits  will  convince  the  people  that  the 
teacher  takes  an  interest  in  his  work  and  desires  to 
do  it  well.     2.  The  teacher  will  be  able  to  ascer- 
tain how  many  children  from  each  family  will  be 
likely  to  attend  school,  what  their  ages  and  ad- 
vancements are,  and  what  books  they  have  studied, 
3.  From  the  children  the  teacher  can  learn  who 
were  in  the  several  classes,  how  many  classes  there 
were  in  the  school,  how  the  school  was  organized, 
and  many  other  matters  of  detail  that  will  assist 
him  in  making  up  a  complete  schedule  of  classes 
and  studies,  ready  for  use  on  the  opening  day. 

23.  The  chief  business  of  the  teacher  on  the  first 
day  is  to  win  the  respect  of  the  pupils,  and  to  es- 
tablish confidence  between  them  and  himself. 


268  THE  NORMAL   QUESTION  BOOtf.     ' 

24.  (1)  Furnish  something  interesting  for  every 
pupil  to  do,  from  the  commencement,  all  day  long. 

(2)  Forestall  disorder  by  establishing  order  at 
every  movement. 

(3)  You  will  more  readily  interest  the  younger 
classes  by  engaging  with  the  older  classes  first,  than 
by  pursuing  the  opposite  course. 

25.  (1)  School  officers  should  be  present  and  in- 
troduce teacher  the  first  day;  this  gives  appearance 
-of  moral  support  to  teacher,  and  produces  salutary 
effect  upon  pupils. 

(2)  Teacher  should  make  brief,  familiar,  and 
appropriate  address  to  pupils ;  should  explain  his 
relations  to  them,  and  theirs  to  him. 

(3)  He  should  strive  to  make  the  first  impres- 
sions pleasant. 

(4)  Special  preparation  for  first  day  indispen-. 
sable;  go  to  work  with  a  carefully  prepared  plan. 
Leave  nothing  to  the  impulse  of  the  moment. 

(5)  Open  school  with  some  appropriate  and 
pleasing  general  exercise.  This  may  be  a  familiar 
song;  some  vocal  exercise,  or  a  responsive  reading 
of  the  Scriptures. 

26.  There  should  not  be  more  than  four  grades  in 
the  public  schools.     The  primer  and  first  reader 
should  constitute  the  D  grade ;  the  second  reader, 
the  C  grade ;  the  third  reader,  the  B  grade ;  and  the 
fourth  reader,  the  A  grade.     The  number  of  classes 
in  each  grade  should  not  exceed  four,  and,  by  clo*e 
classification,  they  need  not  exceed  this  number. 


TEACHING.  269 

27.  Advantages  of  a  programme : 

(1)  It  lessens  the  labor  of  teaching. 

(2)  It  makes  teaching  more  effective. 

(3)  It  promotes  good  order. 

(4)  It  cultivates  systematic  habits. 

(5)  It  promotes  the  ambition  of  pupils. 

28.  The  employments  of  the  school  may  readily 
be  arranged  into  three  classes,  as  follows : 

I.  Study. 
II.  Recitation. 
III.  Exercise. 

29.  Knowledge,   discipline,   aspiration    and  effi- 
ciency. 

30.  (1)  Incentives  to  study  ought  to  be  continu- 
ous in  their  influences. 

(2)  Incentives  'to  study  ought  to  arise  from 
the  nature  of  the  subject,  and  the  circumstances 
connected  with  learning  it. 

31.  The  principal  incentives  to  study,  about  the 
use  of  which  a  difference  of  opinion  exists,  are — 
prizes,  merit-marks,  emulation,  fear  of  punishment, 
shame,  and  ridicule. 

32.  (1)  The  approbation  of  the  teacher. 

(2)  The  approbation  of  the  parents  and  friends 
of  the  -pupil. 

(3)  The  approbation  of  society. 

(4)  The  attainment  of  an  honorable  position 
in  the  school. 

(5)  The  pleasure  of  overcoming  difficulties. 

(6)  The  gratification  of  curiosity. 

(7)  The  desire  of  knowledge. 


270  THE   NORMAL   QUESTION   BOOK. 

(8)  The  hope  of  success  in  life. 

(9)  The  enjoyment  of  pure  ideal  creations. 

(10)  The  duty  of  self-perfection. 

(11)  The  satisfaction  of  doing  right. 

(12)  The  prospect  of  heavenly  reward. 

33.  (1)  The  development  of  the  faculties. 

(2)  The  acquisition  of  knowledge. 

(3)  Its  wise  application  to  the  uses  of  life. 

34.  The  ends  of  the  recitation  may  be  summarily 
stated  to  be : 

(a)  To  develop  the  power  of  quick  and  accu- 
rate perception,  of  close  observation,  and  generally, 
of  clear  and  exact  thought. 

(b)  Another  object  of  the  recitation  is  to  cul- 
tivate the  power  of  concise  and  ready  expression. 

(c)  A  third  object  of  the  recitation  is  to  deter- 
mine the  extent  and  accuracy  of  the  learner's  at- 
tainments. 

(d)  Another  object  of  the  recitation  is  to  increase 
the  attainments  of  the  class,  to  add  to  the  knowl- 
edge that  its  members  have  acquired  in  their  study 
hours. 

(e)  An  object  of  the  recitation  is  to  determine 
the  pupils'  habits  and  methods  of  study,  and  to  cor- 
rect whatever  is  faulty  either  in  manner  or  matter, 

(f )  The  moral  objects  of  the  recitation  are  tc 
cultivate  sentiments  of  justice,  kindness,  forbear- 
ance, and  courtesy. 

35.  How  to  conduct  a  recitation  : 

(1)  A   brief  reproduction   of  the   preceding 
lesson. 


TEACHING.  271 

(2)  A  brief  review  of  the  preceding  lesson. 

(3)  Rehearsal  and  critical  examination  of  the 
daily  lesson. 

(4)  Recapitulation  of  the  daily  lesson. 

(5)  Adequate  preparation  for  the  advanced 
lesson. 

36.  (1)  A  live,  intelligent  teacher. 

(2)  Recitation  seats. 

(3)  An  abundance  of  blackboard. 

(4)  Apparatus — such  as  globes,  charts,  maps, 
numerical  frame,  measures,  etc. 

(5)  Reference  books. 

(6)  Call  bell. 

(7)  Proper  ventilation. 

(8)  Equal  temperature. 

37.  (1)  General  preparation,   always   special   if 
possible. 

(2)  Should  have  a  knowledge  of  mental  and 
moral  philosophy. 

(3)  Should   have  an  abstract  of  each   day's 
work. 

(4)  Should  know  how  to  "  use."  books,  but 
not  abuse  them. 

38.  (1)  Exercise  is  necessary  to  health. 

(2)  Exercise  is  necessary  to  strength. 

(3)  Exercise  is  necessary  to  study. 

39.  School  government  is  the  proper  ordering  of 
both    the    organic   and   individual   action   in   the 
schools,  so  as  to  secure  in  pupils  the  best  possible 
development  of  the   mind   and   discipline  of  the 
heart. 


272        THE  NORMAL  QUESTION  BOOK. 

40.  School  government  may  be  embraced  under 
the  following  heads: 

(1)  School  ethics. 

(2)  School  retributions. 

(3)  School  legislation. 

(4)  School  administration. 

41.  Ethics  is  the  science  which  treats  of  human 
rights  and  duties. 

42.  School-ethics  relates  to  the  rights  and  duties 
of  persons  connected  with  the  school. 

43.  (1)  The  teacher. 

(2)  The  general  school  officers. 

(3)  The  communities  that  found  and  support 
schools. 

(4)  The  pupils. 

44.  (1)  Common  sense. 

(2)  Knowledge  of  the  branches. 

(3)  Teaching  power. 

(4)  Governing  power. 

(5)  Love  of  the  work. 

45.  The  school  duties  of  pupils  may  be  compre- 
hended under  the  following  classification : 

(1)  Duties  to  themselves. 

(2)  Duties  to  one  another. 

(3)  Duties  to  the  school  property. 

(4)  Duties  to  the  teacher. 

(5)  Duties  to  the  general  school  officers. 

(6)  Duties  to  the  school  as  a  whole. 

(7)  Duties  to  visitors  at  the  school. 

(8)  Duties  to  society. 


TEACHING.  273 

(9)  Duties  to  God. 

46.  The  term  "discipline"  is  often  taken  in  a 
broad  sense,  including  all  the  appliances,  studies 
and  exercises  of  the  student's  life.    In  its  more 
contracted  sense,  it  is  applied  to  the  correction  of 
particular  errors  and  faults. 

47.  School  government  is  practically  of  three 

general  species : 

1st.  That  of  force; 

2d.  That  of  authority;  and 

3d.  That  of  love. 

48.  (1)  Privation  of  recitations. 

(2)  Privation  of  recess. 

(3)  Private  reproof. 

(4)  Reproof  before  a  class,  or  before  a  school. 

(5)  Privation  of  position  in  a  class. 

(6)  Daily  and  weekly  reports. 

(7)  Notes  to  parents. 

(8)  Suspension. 

(9)  Expulsion. 

(10)  Corporal  punishment. 

(11)  Withholding  friendship. 

(12)  Special  penalties. 


49.  (1)  Threatening  individual  or  general  punish- 
ment. 

(2)  Scolding  at  individuals  or  the  school. 

(3)  Asking  for  excuses  either  written  or  oral. 
18 


274  THE  NORMAL   QUESTION  BOOK. 

(4)  Whipping  as  it  is  generally  practiced,  i.  e., 
as  the  common  punishment  for  every  kind  of  offense. 

(5)  Compulsory  study,  inflicted  as  a  punish- 
ment. 

(6)  Any  form  of  physical  torture  or  mental 
distress  beyond  the  absolute  demand  of  the  case, 
any  sudden  or  violent  action,  as  throwing  rulers  or 
slapping  the  head,  are  not  only  highly  improper 
but  dangerously  criminal. 

(7)  Any  punishment   whatever  beyond   the 
school-yard,   or,   indeed,   any  punishment  in  the 
school-room,  for  acts  committed  beyond  the  school- 
yard, I  consider  entirely  improper  and  badly  im- 
politic. 

50.  (1)  Guard  against  prejudice   on   entering  a 
school. 

(2)  Do  not  allow  pupils  to  direct  their  owi> 
studies. 

(3)  Do  not  attempt  to  teach  too  many  things, 

(4)  Never  attend  to  extraneous  business  in 
school  hours. 

(5)  Avoid  making  excuses  to  visitors  for  the 
defects  of  your  school. 

(6)  Never  compare  one  child  with  another. 

(7)  Avoid  wounding  the  sensibilities  of  a  dull 
child. 

J         (8)  Never  lose  your  patience  when  parents 
unreasonably  interfere  with  your  plans. 

(9)  Never  make  the  study  of  the  Bible  a  pun- 
ishment. 

(10)  Ride  no  "hobbies"  in  teaching. 


TEACHING.  275 

51.  (1)  Convince  your  scholars  by  your  conduct 
that  you  are  their  friend. 

(2)  Take  special  care  that  the  school-house 
and  its  appendages  are  kept  in  good  order. 

(3)  Teach  both  by  precept  and  by  practice, 
the  use  of  the  decimal  or  American  currency. 

(4)  When  scholars  do  wrong,  it  is  sometimes 
best  to  withhold  immediate  reproof,  but  to  describe 
a  similar  case  in  general  instruction. 

(5)  Be  accurate. 

(6)  Cultivate  a  cheerful  countenance. 

(7)  Study  to  acquire  the  art  of  aptly  illustra- 
ting a  difficult  subject. 

(8)  Take  advantage  of  unusual  occurrences  to 
make  a  moral  or  religious  impression. 

52.  I  call  that  education  which  embraces  the  cul- 
ture of  the  whole  man,  with  all  his  faculties — sub- 
jecting his  senses,  his  understanding,  and  his  pas- 
sions to  reason,  to  conscience,  and  to  the  evangel- 
ical laws  of  the  Christian  revelation. 

De  Fallenberg. 

53.  To  teach  is  to  communicate  knowledge — to 
give  instruction.  Rev.  William  Bates. 

54.  To  learn  is  to  acquire  knowledge — to  be  in- 
structed. 

55.  The  faculties  of  the  mind  are  comprised  in 
three  general  divisions — the  intellect,  the  sensibil- 
ity and  the  will. 

56.  The  first  in  order  is  the  development  of  the 
intellect. 


276        THE  NORMAL  QUESTION  BOOK. 

57.  The  intellect  is  developed  by  the  acquisition 
of  knowledge. 

58.  The  sources  of  knowledge  are,  the  senses  and 
the  reason. 

59.  The  knowledge  which  man  derives  through 
the   senses   is   called    empirical    knowledge  —  the 
knowledge  of  experience. 

60.  This  includes  all  that  we  know  through  the 
senses — seeing,  hearing,  touching,  tasting,  smell- 
ing— and  through  emotional  experiences. 

61.  Knowledge  of  which  reason  is  the  source  is 
called  rational  knowledge. 

62.  Ideas  of  space,  of  time,  of  distance,  the  trutha 
evolved  by  the  mathematical  calculations,  ideas  of 
the  absolute  and  the  infinite,  are  attained  through 
the  processes' of  reasoning,  and  can  not  be  reached 
by  experience. 

63.  A  system  of  education  should  have  for  its 
object  the  guidance  of  the  faculties  of  the  mind  in 
their  efforts  to  reap  in  the  harvest-fields  of  nature, 
so  that  they  may  first  gather  that  which  is  first  re- 
quired, that  they  may  store  away  that  which  is  of 
most  use,  to  the  end  that  the  mind  may  be  strength- 
ened by  labor,  that  the  act  of  receiving  may  in- 
crease the  capacity  to  receive,  and  that  what  re- 
quires greater  strength  and  longer  continued  efforts 
to  overcome  and  possess,  may  be  left  to  be  gath- 
ered   at   that   period    of  life,  when   the   requisite 
strength  and  power  of  endurance  shall  have  been 
gained  through  a  judicious  system  of  exercise. 

64.  Teaching  presupposes  three  conditions:  First, 


TEACHING.  277 

a  degree  of  knowledge  and  capacity  on  the  part  of 
the  pupil ;  second,  a  degree  of  knowledge  and  skill 
on  the  part  of  the  teacher;  and  third,  knowledge 
to  be  acquired. 

65.  (a)  Education  makes  men  more  industrious ; 
(b)  more  trustworthy;  (c)  more  active  and  system- 
atic ;  (d)  more  cheerful ;  (e)  more  far-sighted ;  (f) 
more  economical,  as  producers  and  preservers  of 
property 

66.  (a)  It  tends  to  make  a  people  more  orderly, 
and  to  substitute  reflection  for  passion;  (b)  to  pre- 
dispose them  to  respect  lawful  authority;  (c)  to  in- 
dispose them  to  submit  to  oppression;  (d)  to  ren- 
der political  revolutions  gradual  and  bloodless;  (e) 
to  qualify  men  for  the  exercise  of  more  and  more 
political  power ;  (f )  to  make  refinement  and  civil- 
ization universal. 

67.  (a)  Want  of  interest  on  the  part  of  parents 
and  others;  (b)  frequent  change  of  teachers;    (c) 
excessive  multiplication  of  school  districts;  (d)  di- 
versity of  class-books;  (e)  teachers  not  qualified; 
(f )  defective  supervision. 

68.  The    object-matter   which   must    form    the 
foundation  for  a  system  of  teaching,  will  compre- 
hend : 

(1)  The  nature  of  the  thing  to  be  operated 
upon,  or  educational  capabilities. 

(2)  The  nature  of  the  instrumentalities  which 
may  be  used  in  operating  upon  it,  or  educational 
means. 

(3)  The  manner  of  performing  the  operation, 
or  educational  methods. 


278  THE   NORMAL   QUESTION   BOOK. 

69.  The  classification  of  the  special  elements  of 
pedagogics  is  very  simple: 

(1)  The  physical. 

(2)  The  intellectual. 

(3)  The  practical. 

70.  We  sometimes  apply  to  these  words  Orthobi- 
otics,  Didactics,  and  Pragmatics. 

71.  Physical  education,  as  it  concerns  the  repair- 
ing, the  motor,  or  the  nervous  activities,  is  divided 
into  (1)  Dietetics;  (2)  Gymnastics;  (3)  Sexual  ed- 
ucation. 

72.  Dietetics  is  the  art  of  sustaining  the  normal 
repair  of  the  organism. 

73.  Gymnastics  is  the  art  of  systematic  training 
of  the  muscular  system. 

74.  The  special  direction  which  the  activity  of 
apprehending  intelligence  takes  are : 

(1)  Perception. 

(2)  Conception. 

(3)  Thinking. 

75.  The  perceptive  faculty  is  most  active  in  the 
infant. 

76.  The  conceptive  faculty  is  most  active  in  the 
child. 

77.  The  thinking  faculty  is  most  active  in  the 
youth. 

78.  Thus  we  may   distinguish   an   intuitive,  an 
imaginative,  and  a  logical  epoch. 

79.  In  the  act  of  learning  there  appears  (1)  a 
mechanical  element,  (2)  a  dynamic  element,  and 
(3)  one  in  which  the  dynamic  again  mechanically 
strengthens  itself. 


DEACHIKG.  279 

80.  Ascham,  Montaigne,  Ratich,  Milton,  Comen- 
lus,  Locke,  Rosseau,  Basedow,  Pestalozzi,  Jacotot 
and  Herbert  Spencer. 


280  THE  NOKMAL   QUESTION  BOOK. 


QUESTIONS  ON  MATHEMATICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


1.  Define  geography. 

2.  How  is  geography  divided  ? 

3.  Define  mathematical  geography. 

4.  What  is  the  form  of  the  earth  ? 

5.  Give  proofs  of  its  rotundity. 

6.  "What  is  the  diameter  of  a  sphere? 

7.  "What  is  the  circumference  of  a  sphere? 

8.  Give  the  equatorial  diameter  of  the  earth. 

9.  Give  its  polar  diameter. 

10.  Give  its  circumference. 

11.  "What  is  its  extent  of  surface? 

12.  "What  its  solid  contents  in  miles? 

13.  "What  is  its  weight? 

14.  "What  is  its  specific  gravity  ? 

15.  "What  is  the  horizon  ? 

16.  What  points  ot  the  horizon  are  called  cardi- 
nal points  ? 

17.  "What  are  the  semi-cardinal  points  ? 

18.  "What  position  does  the  earth  occupy  in  the 
universe  ? 

19.  How  many  and  what  bodies  compose  the 
solar  system  ft 

20.  "What  relative  position  does  the  earth  occupy 
Ui  the  solar  system  ? 


MATHEMATICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  281 

21.  What  is  the  distance  of  the  earth  from  the 
sun? 

22.  Has  the  sun  any  other  motion  than  its  move- 
ment through  space? 

23.  To  what  theory  has  this  uniformity  of  direc- 
tion of  the  movements  of  the  planets  and  sun  given 
rise? 

24.  What  is  the  axis  of  the  earth  ? 

25.  What  are  the  poles? 

26.  Which  is  the  north  pole? 

27.  What  is  the  motion  of  the  earth  on  its  axis 
called? 

28.  Give  proofs  of  the  earth's  rotation. 

29.  Explain  how  falling  bodies  prove  it. 

30.  Having  established  that  the  earth  rotates, 
what  considerations  indicate  that  it  rotates  from 
west  to  east  ? 

31.  What  is  the  exact  time  of  a  rotation  ? 

32.  What  is  the  velocity  of  rotation  ? 

33.  Where  is  the  velocity  least  ? 

34.  To  what  phenomenon  does  the  rotation  of 
the  earth  give  rise  ? 

35.  What  is  the  great  circle  called  which  sepa- 
rates the  dark  side  of  the  earth  from  the  light? 

36.  What  is  the  earth's  motion  around  the  sun 
called? 

37.  What  is  the  exact  time  of  a  complete  revo- 
lution? 

38.  Define  a  siderial  year. 

39.  Define  a  tropical  year. 

40.  Which  value  is  taken  for  the  length  of  the 
civil  year? 

41.  What  is  the  extent  of  the  earth's  orbit  ? 


282         THE  NORMAL  QUESTION  BOOK. 

42.  At  what  season  is  the  earth  nearest  the-  sun  ? 

43.  Explain  why  it  is  nearer  at  one  time  than  at 
another. 

44.  When  is  the  earth  at  its  perihelion  ? 

45.  When  at  its  aphelion  ? 

46.  At  what  velocity  does  the  earth  move  in  its 
orbit? 

47.  What  governs  the  velocity  of  the  different 
planets  ? 

48.  What  causes  the  continued  revolution  of  the 
earth  and  other  planets  ? 

49.  How  are  centrifugal  and  centripetal  forces  now 
regarded  ? 

50.  What  gives   the   earth's   orbit  its  elliptical 
shape  ? 

51.  What  produces  the  change  of  seasons? 

52.  Define  circle  as  used  in  geography, 

53.  How  may  circles  of  the  earth  be  divided 

54.  Define  great  and  small  circles. 

55.  Define  circles  of  position,  or  measurement. 

56.  Define  climatic  circles. 

57.  ISTame  the  circles  of  position. 

58.  Name  the  climatic  circles. 

59.  What  is  the  number  of  degrees  in  a  circle? 

60.  Define  latitude. 

61.  What  is  the  length  of  a  degree  of  latitude? 

62.  Are  degrees  of  latitude  of  equal  length  on  a!) 
parts  of  the  globe  ? 

63.  On  what  is  latitude  measured? 

64.  What  is  the  basis  of  the  geographic  mile  ? 

65.  Define  longitude. 

66.  Are  degrees  of  longitude  all  of  equal  length  ? 

67.  On  what  is  longitude  measured? 


MATHEMATICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  283 

68.  What  is  the  greatest  extent  of  longitude? 

69.  What  places  have  no  longitude? 

70.  What  is  the  greatest  extent  of  latitude  ? 

71.  What  places  have  no  latitude? 

72.  What  are  prime  meridians? 

73.  Where  are  these  usually  located? 

74.  What  computations  of  longitude  and  time 
may  be  made,  having  difference  of  longitude  or 
time  between  places  given  ? 

75.  Explain  why. 

76.  Give  a  diagram  showing  the  time  at  the  same 
moment  at  different  places,  marked  at  quadrant's 
distances. 

77.  Define  quadrant. 

78.  What  are  the  tropics? 

79.  Where  are  they  located? 

80.  What  are  the  polar  circles  ? 

81.  Where  are  they  located? 

82.  Why  are  these  circles  thus  located? 

83.  Into  what  zones  do  the  climatic  circles  divide 
the  earth? 

84.  Locate  the  torrid  zone. 

85.  Locate  the  temperates. 

86.  Locate  the  frigids. 

87.  What  is  the  width  of  the  torrid  zone? 

88.  What  is  the  width  of  the  temperates? 

89.  What  is  the  width  of  the  frigids? 

90.  What  is  the  ecliptic? 

91.  What  is  the  degree   of  inclination   of  the 
earth's  axes  to  the  plane  of  the  ecliptic? 

92.  Under  what  circumstances  would  there  have 
been  no  change  of  seasons? 


284        THE  NOKMAL  QUESTION  BOOK. 

93.  In  what  case  would  the  change  of  seasons 
have  been  greater  than  it  now  is  ? 

94.  What  are  the  equinoxes? 

95.  How  many  and  what  are  they  called? 

96.  On  what  days  of  the  year  do  they  occur? 

97.  What  are  the  equinoctial  points  ? 

98.  What  are  solstices  ? 

99.  How  many,  and  what  are  they  called  ? 

100.  On  what  days  of  the  year  do  they  occur? 

101.  What  are  the  solstitial  points  ? 

102.  Why  is  the  ecliptic  so  called  ? 

103.  On  what  does  the  relative  length  of  the  daf 
and  night  depend  ? 


MATHEMATICAL   GEOGRAPHY.  285 


ANSWERS  TO  QUESTIONS  ON  MATHEMATICAL 
GEOGRAPHY. 


1.  Geography  is  the  science  that  treats  of  the 
earth.     In  its  widest  sense,  it  embraces  all  that  we 
know  of  the  globe — its  form,  magnitude  and  mo- 
tions; the  successive  changes  it  has  undergone,  its 
present  condition,  its  structure,  products  and  in- 
habitants. 

2.  Geography  is  divided  into  three  branches — 
mathematical,  political  and  physical. 

3.  Mathematical  geography  is  a  term  given  to 
certain  facts  of  astronomy  and  mathematics  which 
are  used  in   geography.     The   astronomical   part 
treats  of  the  earth  as  a  planet  of  the  solar  system, 
with  its  size,  motions,  etc.    The  mathematical  part 
teaches  us  how  to  represent  the  earth's  surface  oa 
maps  and  globes. 

4.  The  shape  of  the  earth  is  that  of  a  sphere, 
or  globe,  slightly  flattened  at  the  poles;  in  exact 
language,  an  oblate  spheroid. 

5.  I.  The   continual   circumnavigation    of   the 
earth.     This  shows  that  the  earth  is  round  from 
east  to  west,  at 


286        THE  NORMAL  QUESTION  BOOK. 

II.  Appea  ince  of  approaching  objects.  If  the 
earth  were  flat,  as  soon  as  an  object  appeared  on 
the  horizon,  we  would  see  the  upper  and  lower 
parts  at  the  same  time ;  but  if  it  were  curved,  the 
top  parts  would  first  be  seen.  Now,  when  a  ship 
is  coming  into  port,  we  see  first  the  topmasts,  then 
the  sails,  and  finally  the  hull;  hence  the  earth 
must  be  curved ;  and,  since  the  appearance  is  the 
same,  no  matter  from  what  direction  the  ship  is 
approaching,  we  infer  that  the  earth  is  evenly 
curved,  or  spherical. 

III.  The  circular  shape  of  the  horizon.     The 
horizon,  or  the  line  that  limits  our  view  when  noth- 
ing intervenes,  is  always  a  circle. 

IV.  The  shape   of  the   earth's   shadow.     The 
shadow  which  the  earth  casts  on  the  moon  during 
an  eclipse  of  the  moon,  is  always  circular,  and  as 
only  spherical  bodies  in  all  positions  can  cast  such 
shadows,  we  infer  that  the  earth  is  spherical. 

V.  Measurement.  The  shape  of  the  earth  has 
been  accurately  ascertained  by  calculations  based 
on  the  measurement  of  an  arc  of  a  meridian.  We 
therefore  not  only  know  that  it  is  spheroidal,  but 
also  the  exact  amount  of  its  oblateness. 

VI.  Great  circle  of  illumination.  The  shape  of 
the  great  circle  of  illumination,  or  the  line  separ- 
ating the  portion  of  the  surface  lighted  by  the  sun's 
rays  from  that  in  the  shadow,  is  another  evidence 
of  the  rotundity  of  our  earth. 

6.  A  diameter  of  a  sphere  is  any  straight  line 
drawn  through  the  center  from  surface  to  surface. 


MATHEMATICAL   GEOGRAPHY.  287 

7.  The  circumference  of  a  sphere  is  the  greatest 
distance  around  it. 

8.  7,925.65  miles. 

9.  7,899.17  miles. 

10.  24,899  miles. 

11.  196,900,278  square  miles. 

12.  260,000,000,000  cubic  miles. 

13.  5,852,000,000,000,000   of  tons,  a  weight  of 
which  our  minds  can  form  no  conception. 

14.  The  specific  gravity  of  the  globe  is  found  to 
be  about  5f ;  that  is,  it  would  require  5§  globes  of 
water  of  the  same  size,  to  balance  the  weight  of  the 
earth. 

15.  The  horizon  is  that  circle  upon  which  the 
earth  and  sky  appear  to  meet. 

16.  North,  South,  East  and  West,  are  called  car- 
dinal points. 

17.  North-east,  north-west,  south-east  and  south- 
west, are  called  semi-cardinal  points. 

18.  The  earth  is  one  of  a  group  of  small  non- 
luminous  bodies  which  revolve  around  the  sun,  ac- 
company him  through  space,  and  reflect  his  light. 

19.  The  solar  system  comprises  the  sun,  eight 
large  bodies  called  planets,  and   as  far  as  is  now 
known  about  one  hundred  and  seventy-five  smaller 
bodies  called  planetoids,  or  asteroids,  besides  nu- 
merous comets  and  meteors.     Some  of  the  planet* 
have    bodies  called    moons   or  satellites   moving 


288        THE  NORMAL  QUESTION  BOOK. 

around  them.     These  also  belong  to  the  solar  sys- 
tem. 

20.  The  earth  belongs  to  the  group  nearest  the 
sun  and  is  third  from  the  sun  in  position. 

21.  Nearly  92,000,000  of  miles. 

22.  The  sun,  all  the  primary  planets,   and  their 
satellites  so  far  as  known,  rotate  from  west  to  east. 

23.  To  a  theory  by  Laplace  called  the  nebular 
hypothesis,  which  assumes  that  originally  all  the 
material  of  which  the  solar  system  is  composed, 
was  scattered  throughout  space  in  the  form  of  very 
tenuous  matter  called  nebula.      It  being  granted 
that  this  matter  began  to  accumulate  around  a  cen- 
ter, and  that  a  motion  of  rotation  was  acquired,  it 
can  be  shown  on  strict  mechanical  principles,  that 
a  system  resembling  our  own  might  be  evolved. 

24.  The  central  line  of  rotary  motion  is  called 
the  axis  of  rotation. 

25.  The  extremities  of  the  axis  are  called  the 
poles. 

26.  The  north  pole  is  the  pole  nearest  the  north 
star. 

27.  It  is  called  its  rotation. 

28.  I.  A  direct  proof  of  the  earth's  rotation  is 
derived  from   observations  of  a  pendulum.     If  a 
heavy  ball  be  suspended  by  a  flexible  wire  from  a 
fixed  point,  and  the  pendulum  thus  formed  be  made 
to  vibrate,  its  vibrations  will  all  be  performed  in 
the  same  plane.     If  instead   of  being   suspended 
from  a  fixed  point,  we  give  to  the  point  of  support 


MATHEMATICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  289 

a  slow  motion  of  rotation  around  a  vertical  axis, 
the  plane  of  vibration  will  still  remain  unchanged. 
Suppose  then  a  heavy  ball  to  be  suspended  by  a 
wire  from  a  fixed  point  directly  over  the  pole  of 
the  earth  and  made  to  vibrate ;  these  vibrations 
will  continue  to  be  made  in  the  same  invariable 
plane.  But  the  earth  meanwhile  turns  round  ab 
the  rate  of  15°  per  hour;  and  since  the  observer  is 
unconscious  of  his  own  motion  of  rotation,  it  re- 
sults that  the  plane  of  vibration  of  the  pendulum 
appears  to  revolve  at  the  same  rate  in  the  opposite 
direction. 

II.  A  second  proof  of  the  earth's  rotation  is  de- 
rived from  the  motion  of  falling  bodies. 

29.  If  the  earth  had  no  rotation  upon  an  axis,  a 
heavy  body  let  fall  from  any  elevation  would  de- 
scend in  the  direction  of  a  vertical  line.    But  if  the 
earth  rotates  on  an   axis,  then  since  the  top  of  a 
tower  describes  a  larger  circle  than  the  base,  its 
easterly  motion  must  be  more  rapid  than  the  base, 
and  if  a  ball  be  dropped  from  the  top  of  a  tower, 
since  it  already  has  the  easterly  motion  which  be- 
longs to  the  top  of  the  tower,  it  will  retain  this 
easterly  motion  during  its  descent,  and  its  devia- 
tion to  the  east  of  the  vertical  line  will  be  nearly 
equal  to  the  excess  of  the  motion  of  the  top  of  the 
tower  above  that  of  the  base  during  the  fall. 

30.  The  sun  and  stars  appear  to  move  in  an  op- 
posite direction,  from  east  to  west,  or  as  it  is  com- 
monly expressed  "  rise  in  the  east"  and  "set  in  the 

19 


290  THE    NORMAL    QUESTION   BOOK. 

west."     This  apparent  motion  of  the  sun  and  stars 
is  caused  in  reality  by  the  rotation  of  the  earth. 

31.  The  time  of  a  complete  rotation  is  23  hours, 
£6  minutes,  4.09  seconds. 

32.  The  velocity  of  rotation  at  any  point  on  the 
equator  is  about  1,042  miles  per  hour. 

33.  At  points  distant  from  the  equator,  the  velo- 
city diminishes,  until  at  the  poles  it  is  nothing. 

34.  The  alternation  of  day  and  night  is  owing  to 
the  earth's  rotation,  which  brings  each  point  of  its 
surface  from  darkness  to  light,  and  from  light  to 
darkness. 

35.  The  great  circle  which  separates   the  dark 
side  of  the  earth  from  the  light  side  is  called  the 
circle  of  illumination. 

36.  Its  revolution. 

37.  The  exact  time  of  a  complete  revolution  is 
365  days,  6  hours,  9  minutes,  9.6  seconds. 

38.  The  exact  time  of  a  revolution  is  called  a 
sidereal  year. 

39.  The   tropical   year,  or  the   time   from   one 
March  equinox  to  the  next,  is  365  days,  5  hours,  48 
minutes,  49.7  seconds. 

40.  The  latter  value  is  the  one  generally  given 
for  the  length  of  the  fears  being  nearly  365J  days, 

41.  577,000,000  miles. 

42.  About  January  1st. 

43.  The  orbit  of  the  earth  is  au  ellipse.     The  sun 


MATHEMATICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  291 

is  in  one  of  the  foci  and  as  this  is  not  in  the  center 
of  the  orbit,  the  earth  must  be  nearer  to  the  sun  at 
some  parts  of  its  revolution  than  at  others. 

44.  When  the  earth  is  in  that  part  of  its  orbit 
which  is  nearest  to  the  sun,  it  is  said  to  be  at  its 
perihelion. 

45.  When  in  that  part  of  its  orbit  farthest  from 
the  sun,  it  is  at  its  aphelion. 

46.  Its  mean  velocity  may  be  taken  as  equal  to 
about  19  miles  a  second,  which  is  nearly  sixty  times 
faster  than  the  speed  of  a  cannon-ball. 

47.  While  the  circumference  of  the  orbits  of  the 
planets  increase  with  their  distance  from  the  sun, 
their  velocity  at  the  same  time  diminishes,  and  the 
time  of  revolution,  or  length  of  year,  increases  cor- 
respondingly. 

48.  The    earth's    movement    through    space   is 
caused   solely  by  a  projectile  force  imparted   to  it 
when  it  first  began  its  separate  existence — probably 
when  first  separated  from  the  nebulous  sun.    From 
its  inertia  it  would  move  for  an  indefinite  time  in 
one  direction,  but,  by  the  sun's  attraction  it  is  con- 
stantly changing  its  direction  by  falling  toward  the 
sun ;  and  thus  is  produced  the  curved  shape  of  its 
orbit. 

49.  Centrifugal  and  centripetal  forces,  as  such, 
have  no  real  existence,  save  in  the  projectile  force 
and  in  the  attraction  of  the  sun.     It  is  inertia  alone 
that  keeps  the  earth  moving  and  the  sun's  attrac- 
tion that  modifies  the  motion.     The  earth  has  no 
power  whatever,  in  itself,  to  move  either  towards 
or  from  the  sun.     An  entire  abandonment  of  the 


292        THE  NORMAL  QUESTION  BOOK. 

idea  of  center  -seeking  or  center-flying  forces,  will 
greatly  simplify  the  explanation  of  the  earth's  mo' 
tion  of  revolution. 

50.  It  is  owing  to  the  attractive  influence  of  the 
neighboring  planets,  which  modify  the  effect  of  the 
sun's  attraction. 

51.  The  change  of  seasons  is  produced  by  the 
revolution  of  the  earth,  together  with  the  inclina- 
tion and  constant  parallelism  of  the  axis. 

52.  The  term  circle,  in  geographical  science,  is 
used  in  a  restricted  sense.     The  geographical  circles 
are  not  planes  cutting  the  terrestrial   globe,  but 

lines  encircling  it. 


53.  Into  great  circles  and  small  circles,  and  into 
circles  of  position  and  climatic  circles. 

54.  Those  which  bisect  the  surface  of  the  sphere 
are  called  great  circles.     All  others  are  small  cir- 
cles. 

55.  Circles   of  position   include   the   equator,  a 
great  circle  encompassing  the  globe  from  east  to 
west,  midway  between  the  poles  ;  meridians,  great 
circles  encompassing  the  globe  from  north  to  south, 
intersecting  at  the  poles,  and  crossing  the  equator 
at  right  angles;  and  parallels,  small  circles  parallel 
to  the  equator.     They  are  used  in  determining  tha 
geographical  position  of  places. 

56.  They  are  four  parallels  which  serve  not  only 
to  determine  position,  but  also  to  mark  certain  im- 
portant climatic  boundaries,  hence  they   may  be 
distinguished  as  climatic  parallels, 


MATHEMATICAL   GEOGRAPHY.  293 

67.  They  are  the  equator,  the  meridians,  and  the 
parallels. 

58.  The  tropics,  the  polar  circles  and  the  ecliptic. 

59.  Every  circle,  whether  great  or  small,  is  di- 
vided into  360  equal  parts,  called  degrees. 

60.  The  latitude  of  a  place,  is  the  distance  of  its 
parallel  from  the  equator. 

61.  69£  miles,  or  ^-g-  part  of  the  circumference 
of  the  earth. 

62.  Near  the  poles  the  degrees  are  slightly  longer, 
owing  to  the  oblateness  of  the  sphere. 

63.  Upon  the  meridians. 

64.  One  minute  of  longitude  at  the  equator  con- 
stitutes the  geographical  or  nautical  mile  used  in 
reckoning  distances  at  sea. 

65.  The  longitude  of  a  place,  is  the  distance  of 
its  meridian  from  the  prime  meridian. 

66.  The  length  of  the  degrees  of  longitude  de- 
creases as  we  recede  from  the  equator,  the  parallels 
becoming    smaller  the   nearer  we    approach   the 
poles. 

67.  Upon  the  parallels  and  the  equator. 

68.  There  are  180°  of  west  longitude  and  180°  of 
east  longitude. 

69.  At  the  poles  where  all  the  meridians  meet, 
longitude  ceases. 

70.  There  are  90°  of  north  latitude,  and  90°  of 
south  latitude. 


294  THE   NORMAL    QUESTION   BOOK. 

71.  Places  on  the  equator  have  no  latitude. 

72.  The  meridian  from  which  longitude  is  reck- 
oned is  called  the  prime  meridian. 

73.  For  each  nation  it  is  generally  the  meridian 
of  its  own  capital. 

74.  If  the  difference  in  time  marked  at  two  places 
be  known,  their  difference  in  longitude  can  at  once 
be  ascertained,  and  vice  versa. 

75.  Since  any  given  point  on  the  earth's  surface 
passes  through  360°  of  longitude — one  entire  rota- 
tion— in  24  hours,  it  must  pass  through  -3^-°,  or  15°, 
in  one  hour;  and  1°  in  -fa  of  an  hour,  or  four  min- 


utes. 

76. 
u 

0° 

We 

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St. 
o 

0 

3 

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9( 

St. 

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18 

0° 

12  A 

Monday 
night  of 

.  M. 

or  mid- 
Sunday. 

6A 
Moil 

.  M. 

day. 

No 
of  Moi 

on 
iday. 

6P 

Mon 

M. 

lay. 

12  P 
Midni 
Mon 

.M. 

ghtof 
day. 

77.  A  quadrant  is  one  quarter  of  a  circle,  or  90°. 

78.  The  tropics  are  parallels  which   mark   the 
highest  latitude  which  receives  the  vertical  rays  of 
the  sun. 

79.  They  are  located  23J°  from  the  equator. 

80.  They  are  parallels  which  mark  the  limits  of 
illumination  when  the  sun  is  vertical  at  the  tropics. 

81.  They  are  located  23J°  from  the  poles. 


MATHEMATICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

82.  Their  position  is  fixed  by  the  inclination  of 
the  earth's  axis  23J°  towards  the  plane  of  its  orbit. 

83.  The  zones  enclosed  by  these  circles  are:  one 
torrid  zone,  two  temperate  zones,  and  two  frigid 
zones. 

84.  The  torrid  zone  is  between  the  Tropic  of 
Cancer  and  the  Tropic  of  Capricorn. 

85.  The  temperates  lie  between  the  tropics  and 
the  polar  circles. 

86.  The  frigids  lie  between  the  polar  circles  and 
the  poles. 

87.  The  Torrid  Zone  is  47°,  (=  about  3,250  miles) 
in  breadth. 

88.  Each  Temperate  Zone  is  43°  (=  nearly  3,000 
miles)    in  breadth. 

89.  Each  Frigid  Zone  is  23J°  (=  1,625  miles)  in 
width. 

90.  The  ecliptic  is  a  great  circle  whose  plane  co- 
incides with  that  of  the  earth's  orbit. 

91.  23|°  toward  the  plane  of  the  ecliptic. 

92.  If  the  earth's  axis  had  been  perpendicular  to 
the  plane  of  its  orbit,  the  equator  would  have  coin- 
cided with  the  ecliptic ;  day  and  night  would  have 
been  of  equal  duration  throughout  the  year,  and 
there  would  have  been  no  diversity  of  seasons. 

93.  If  the  inclination  of  the  equator  to  the  eclip- 
tic had  been  greater  than  it  is,  the  sun  would  have 
receded  farther  from  the  equator  on  the  north  side 


296         THE  NORMAL  QUESTION  BOOK. 

in  summer,  and  on  the  south  side  in  winter,  and 
the  heat  of  summer  as  well  as  the  cold  of  winter 
would  have  been  more  intense ;  that  is,  the  diver- 
sity of  the  seasons  would  have  been  greater  than 
at  present. 

94.  They  are  the  times  of  the  year  at  which  the 
sun's  vertical  rays  fall  exactly  on  the  equator. 
1   95.  There  are  two  equinoxes,  the  vernal  and  au- 
tumnal. 

96.  The  vernal  equinox  takes  place  on  the  20th 
of  March,  and  the  autumnal  on  the  22d  of  Septem- 
ber. 

97.  The  ecliptic  intersects  the  equator  at  two 
points  diametrically  opposite  to  each  other.    These 
are  called  equinoctial  points. 

98.  The  solstices  are  the  times  at  which  the  ver- 
tical rays  of  the  sun  reach  their  farthest  northern 
or  southern  limit,  and  fall  vertical  on  one  or  the 
other  of  the  tropics. 

99.  There  are  two  solstices,  called  the  summer 
solstice,  and  the  winter  solstice. 

100.  The  summer  solstice  takes  place  on  the  21st 
of  June,  and  the  winter  solstice  on  the  21st  of  De- 
cember. 

101.  They  are  the  points  of  the  ecliptic  which  are 
midway  between  the  equinoxes. 

/ 

102.  This  circle  is  so  called  because  solar   and 

lunar  eclipses  can  only  take  place  when  the  moon 
is  very  near  its  plane. 

103.  Whenever  more  than  half  of  either  the  north- 
ern or  southern   hemisphere  is  illumined  by  the 


MATHEMATICAL   GEOGRAPHY.  297 

rays  of  the  sun,  the  length  of  the  day  in  that  hem- 
isphere will  exceed  that  of  the  night,  in  proportion 
as  the  length  of  the  illuminated  part,  measured 
along  any  of  the  parallels,  exceeds  that  of  the  dark 
part. 


THE   NORMAL   QUESTION   BOOK. 


QUESTIONS  ON  POLITICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


1.  Define  political  geography. 

2.  Under  what  heads  may  this  division  of  geog- 
raphy be  discussed  ? 

3.  What  political  divisions  does  the  continent 
of  North  America  comprise  ? 

4.  Of  what  races   does  the  population  of  the 
United  States  consist? 

5.  What  is  the  number  of  the  population  of  the 
United  States? 

6.  What  are  the  leading  forms  of  industry  in 
the  different  localities  ? 

7.  What  are  the  leading  exports  and  imports  of 
foreign  commerce? 

8.  With  what  countries  is  the  commerce  of  the 
United  States? 

9.  What  are  the  divisions  of  British  America? 

10.  What  are  the  most  important  provinces  of 
British  America  ? 

11.  In  what  does  their  source  of  wealth  consist? 

12.  What  are  its  forms  of  industry  ? 

13.  How  does  its  commerce  rank? 

14.  How  is  the  Dominion  governed  ? 

15.  What  is  the  number  of  its  population  and 
what  is  its  state  of  advancement  ? 


POLITICAL   GEOGRAPHY.  299 

16.  Locate  the  Northwest  Territory. 

17.  What  difference  exists  between  the  popula- 
tion of  Greenland  and  Iceland? 

18.  What  is  the  character  of  the  population  of 
Mexico  ? 

19.  What  are  their  forms  of  industry? 

20.  What  their  sources  of  wealth  ? 

21.  Of  what  divisions  does  Central  America  con- 
sist? 

22.  What  gives  importance  to  this  country  ? 

23.  To  whom  do  the  West  Indies  belong? 

24.  How  many  and  what  are  the  political  divis- 
ions of  South  America? 

25.  What  is  the  number  of  inhabitants  of  South 
America?     To  what  races  do  they  belong? 

26.  What  is   the   state  of  commerce  of  South 
America  ? 

27.  Which  the  most  important  country  in  South 
America? 

28.  Which  is  the  largest  city  in  the  southern 
hemisphere? 

29.  What  is  the  state  of  civilization  in   South 
America? 

30.  What  is  true  of  the  natural  resources  of  Bra- 
zil? 

31.  What  are  its  principal  industries  ? 

32.  Which  is  the  most  progressive  of  the  Spanish 
American  republics? 

33.  Name  the  British  isles. 

34.  What  does  the  British  empire  comprise? 

35.  What  is  the  form  of  government  of  the  Brit- 
ish empire? 


300  THE    NORMAL   QUESTION  BOOK. 

36.  What  is  the  rank  of  England  in  the  United 
Kingdom  ? 

37.  In  what  do  its  resources  consist? 

38.  What  is  the  commercial  rank  of  England? 

39.  What  are  the  resources  of  Wales? 

40.  What  are  the  employments  of  the  Scotch? 

41.  What  difference  exists  between  the  people 
of  the  highlands  and  the  lowlands  ? 

42.  For  what  is  Glasgow  noted? 

43.  Describe  Ireland. 

44.  What  are  its  political  divisions  ? 

45.  What  are  its  important  cities  and  for  what  is 
each  noted? 

46.  How  many  and  what  are  the  empires  of  Eu- 
rope? 

47.  How  many  and  what  are  its  republics? 

48.  How  many  and  what  are  its  kingdoms  ? 

49.  Which  of  the  latter  are  absolute  monarchies? 

50.  What  is  the  total  population  of  Europe? 

51.  Of  what  race  does  it  consist  and  what  branches 
does  it  include? 

52.  What  countries  occupy  the  Scandinavian  pe- 
ninsula? 

53.  What  are  the  exports  of  Norway? 

54.  What  are  the  exports  of  Sweden  ? 

55.  What  is  the  most  northern  town  in  the  world  ? 

56.  What  races  dwell  in  the  extreme  northern 
part  of  the  Scandinavian  Peninsula? 

57.  How  does  the  liusian  Empire  rank,  and  what 
does  it  include  ? 

58.  What  is  the  state  of  the  inhabitants  ? 

59.  What  are  the  five  great  powers  of  Europe? 


POLITICAL   GEOGRAPHY.  301 

60.  What  large  and  navigable  rivers  in  Central 
Europe  ? 

61.  "What  is  the  rank  of  France  among  States  ? 

62.  What  of  its  education  ? 

63.  What  are  the  forms  of  industries  of  the  peo- 
ple? 

64.  For  what  is  the  capital  city  of  France  noted, 
and  how  does  it  rank  in  size? 

65.  Of  how  many  states  is  the  German  empire 
composed? 

66.  Name'the  most  important. 

67.  What  is  the  extent  and  population  of  Ger- 
many? 

68.  What  are  the  employments  of  its  people  ? 

69.  What  are  its  exports,  and  how  does  it  com- 
pare with  England  in  manufactures  and  commerce? 

70.  How  does  Germany  rank  with  other  coun- 
tries in  educational  matters? 

71.  What  are  the  divisions  of  the  Austrian  em- 
pire? 

72.  Why  is  the  foreign  trade  of  Austria  limited? 

73.  Of  what  races   are  the  people   of  Austria 
made  up? 

74.  Mention  some  of  its  important  cities. 

75.  What  lands  does  Denmark  comprise? 

76.  What  are  the  employments  of  the  people? 

77.  What  peculiarity  about  the  state  of  Holland  ? 

78.  What  river  waters  Belgium,' and  how  is  Bel- 
gium situated? 

79.  For  what  is  the  country  of  Switzerland  prin- 
cipally noted? 

80.  What  are  its  manufactures? 


302  THE  NORMAL   QUESTION   BOOK. 

81.  "What  is  the  present  condition  of  the  people 
of  Spain? 

82.  What  are  the  pursuits  of  the  people  of  Por- 
tugal ? 

83.  "With  what  other  people  are  they  closely  al- 
lied? 

84.  What  are  the  characteristics  of  the  people 
'of  Italy? 

85.  What  is  the  most  important  manufacture  of 
Italy? 

86.  What  are  the  interesting  features  of  Rome  ? 

87.  What  gives  special  interest  to  the  kingdom 
of  Greece  ? 

88.  What  are  the  present  employments  of  its 
people  ? 

89.  Of  what  race  are  the  Turks? 

90.  To  which  continent  does  their  empire  more 
properly  belong? 

91.  What  are  the  races  of  Asia,  and  what  is  the 
number  of  each  ? 

92.  What  is  its  state  of  civilization  ? 

93.  What  is  true  of  the  rivers  of  Asia  ? 

94.  What  European  powers  have  possession  in 
Asia? 

95.  What  is  the  form  of  government  throughout 
Asia? 

96.  How  does  China  rank  as  an  empire  ? 

97.  Of  what  political  divisions  does  it  consist? 

98.  What  is  the  number  of  its  population  ? 

99.  What  is  the  character  of  its  civilization  ? 

100.  Of  what  does  the  empire  of  Japan  consist? 

101.  How  do  the  Japanese  rank  in  civilization  ? 

102.  What  is  the  situation  of  Africa? 


POLITICAL   GEOGRAPHY.  303 

103.  Give  the  outline  of  Africa. 

104.  For  what  is  Africa  remarkable? 

105.  Describe  the  mountains  of  Africa. 

106.  Name  the  rivers  of  Africa. 

107.  Describe  the  lakes  of  Africa. 

108.  Name  the  productions  of  Africa. 

109.  Describe  the  government  of  Africa. 

110.  What  is  the  number  of  inhabitants  and  to 
what  races  do  they  belong  ? 

111.  Describe  Egypt. 

112.  For  what  is  Egypt  celebrated? 

113.  Name  the  countries  of  Africa. 

114.  What  does  Australia  comprise  ? 

115.  Describe  the  inhabitants  of  Australia. 

116.  Name  the  countries  of  Australia  and  give 
the  capital  of  each. 

117.  What  is  the  government  of  Australia? 

118.  What  is  Oceanica? 


304  THE  NORMAL   QUESTION  BOOK. 


ANSWERS  TO  QUESTIONS  ON  POLITICAL 
GEOGRAPHY. 


1.  Political  geography  treats  of  men  as  inhab- 
itants of  the  earth,  of  the  modes  of  life  they  lead, 
and  of  the  forms  of  government  under  which  they 
live. 

2.  Races,  nations,  industries,  governments,  civ- 
ilization, etc. 

3.  North  America  comprises  six  divisions : 

(1)  The  United  States  occupying  the  middle 
part  of  North  America,  and  the  north-western  part 
called  Alaska. 

(2)  British  America. 

(3)  Danish  America,  comprising  the  islands  of 
Greenland  and  Iceland. 

(4)  The  Republic  of  Mexico,  lying  south  of 
the  United  States. 

(5)  The  Republics  of  Central  America,  lying 
south-east  of  Mexico,  between  the  Caribbean  Sea 
and  Pacific  Ocean. 

(6)  The  West  Indies,  comprising  two  island 
chains:  the  Antilles  and  the  Bahamas. 

4.  The  white  race,  negroes  and  mulattoes,  the 
descendants  of  slaves  brought  from  Africa,  Indians 
and  Chinese. 


POLITICAL   GEOGRAPHY.  305 

5.  In  1870,  the  population  was  about  39,000,000. 
The  white  race  numbered  about  34,000,000;   ne- 
groes  and   mulattoes,   nearly  5,000,000;   Indians, 
350,000 ;  Chinese,  64,000. 

6.  Agriculture    is  the   leading    industry.     Its 
chief  seats  are  the  central  and  Atlantic  plains  and 
the  California  basin.     Grazing  is  an  important  oc- 
cupation in  the  agricultural  regions.    Mining  is  an 
industry  of  great  and  growing  importance.     The 
principal  mines  of  coal  and  iron  are  in  the  eastern 
highland;  those  of  gold  and  silver  in  the  moun- 
tains of  the  western  highland ;   those  of  lead   in 
Nevada,  Utah,  and  the  valley  of  the  Upper  Missis- 
sippi ;  and  those  of  copper  on  the  shores  of  Lake 
Superior.    Manufacturing  has  its  chief  seat  north  of 
the  Potomac  and  Ohio.    Fishing  is  a  leading  inter- 
est in  some  of  the  New  England  States.     Com- 
merce, domestic  and  foreign. 

7.  Cotton,   breadstuff's,   provisions,   petroleum, 
gold  and  tobacco  are  the  exports.     The  imports 
are  dry  goods,  sugar,  coffee,  hides,  tea,  iron  and 
tin. 

8.  The  foreign  commerce  of  the  United  States 
is  chiefly  with  England,  Germany  and  France  in 
Europe ;  with  Canada,  the  West  Indies  and  Brazil 
in  America ;  and  with  China  and  Japan  in  Asia. 

9.  This  extensive  country  may  be  divided  into 
three  parts :     The  Dominion  of  Canada,  the  Prov- 
ince of  Newfoundland,  and  the  "  North-west  Ter- 
ritory." 

10.  Nova  Scotia,  Prince  Edward  Island,  New 
20 


rir 

306        THE  NORMAL  QUESTION  BOOK. 

Brunswick,  Quebec,  Ontario.  These  five  provinces 
all  lie  in  the  basin  of  the  St.  Lawrence  and  the 
great  lakes.  They  form  the  most  populous,  pro- 
ductive and  important  section  of  the  British  Amer- 
ican possessions. 

11.  This  region  possesses  great  natural  wealth — > 

(1)  In   its  extensive   forests  of  pine,  maple, 
beech  and  oak. 

(2)  In   the   fertile  soil   of  the  St.  Lawrence 
Basin. 

(3)  In  the  fisheries  of  the  St.  Lawrence  and 
neighboring  waters. 

(4)  In  its  mines  of  iron,  coal,  copper  and  lead. 

(5)  In  its  direct  water   communication  with 
the  Atlantic. 

12.  Farming,  lumbering,  ship-building,  the  fish- 
eries, mining  and  commerce. 

13.  With  the  exception  of  the  United  States  and 
England  it  has  a  larger  commercial  marine  than 
any  other  country. 

14.  The   Dominion   government  is  vested   in  a 
Governor-General   appointed  by  the   British  sov- 
ereign, and  a  legislature,  called  the  Parliament. 

15.  The  population  is  about  4,000,000.     In  civili- 
zation, the  Dominion  ranks  with  the  United  States. 
The    people   are   educated,   prosperous   and    pro- 
gressive. 

16.  The  North-west  Territory  includes  the  vast 
tract  of  country  north  of  the  Dominion  of  Canada 
and  the  United  States  stretching  from  the  Atlantic 
to  the   Pacific  and   extending   about  1,400   miles 
from  north  to  south. 


POLITICAL   GEOGRAPHY.  307 

17.  The  people  of  Iceland  are  more  intelligent. 

18.  The  population  consists  of  Mexican  Indians, 
who  form  the  majority,  of  Creoles,  or  people  de- 
scended from  Spanish  parents;  and  of  Mestizos,  or 
mixed  races.     The  Mexicans  are  a  civilized  but  not 
a  progressive  race. 

19.  Agriculture  and  silver  mining  are  the  prin- 
cipal occupations,  but  every  branch  of  industry  is 
at  the  lowest  ebb. 

20.  Mexico  is  rich  in  silver,  gold,  quicksilver  and 
other  metals;  and  the  soil  is  generally  fertile.    The 
country  is,  however,  destitute  of  water  highways 
from  the  interior  to  the  coast. 

21.  Central  America  is  the  seat  of  five  indepen- 
dent republics — Guatemala,  Honduras,  San  Salva- 
dor, Nicaragua,  and  Costa  Rica,  and  of  the  small 
province  of  British  Honduras,  or  Belize. 

22.  The  importance  of  this  country  arises  : 

(1)  From  its  geographical  position  on  the  nar- 
row neck  of  land  between  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific 
oceans. 

(2)  From  its  abundance  of  valuable  natural 
products. 

23.  Cuba  and  Porto  Rico  are  colonies  of  Spain ; 
Jamaica,  the  Bahamas,  and  most  of  the  lesser  An- 
tilles belong  to  Great  Britain ;  the  rest  belong  to 
France,  and  other  European  countries.     Hayti  was 
once  divided  between  France  and  Spain;  it  now 
consists  of  two  independent  negro  republics — Hayti 
and  San  Domingo. 

24.  There  are  thirteen  political  divisions  in  South 


308         THE  NORMAL  QUESTION  BOOK. 

America.  Nine  states,  or  republics — Venezuela, 
Columbia,  Ecuador,  Peru,  Bolivia,  Chili,  Argen- 
tina, Uruguay,  Paraguay.  One  empire — Brazil. 
Three  colonies — British,  Dutch  and  French  Guy- 
ana. Patagonia  has  no  organized  government. 

25.  South  America  has  about  26,000,000  inhabit- 
ants.    One  third  of  these  belong  to  the  Caucasian 
race,  one  third  are  Indians,  and  the  remainder  con- 
sists of  negroes  and  persons  of  mixed  blood,  as 
mestizoes  and  mulattoes. 

26.  South  America  has  had  a  comparatively  lim- 
ited commerce.    It  is  now  rapidly  increasing,  espe- 
cially in  Brazil,  Chili,  and  the  Argentine  Confed- 
eration. 

27.  Brazil  is   the  largest  and  most  important 
country  of  South  America.     Its  area  is  nearly  as 
great  as  that  of  the  United  States  or  of  all  Europe. 

28.  Rio  Janeiro,  sometimes  called  Rio,  the  most 
important  port,  is  the  capital  of  Brazil  and  the 
largest  city  in  the  southern  hemisphere. 

29.  The  people  are  in  general  uneducated  and 
unprogressive.     They  have  few  railroads,  few  tele- 
graphs, steamers,  printing  presses  or  manufactures. 
South  America  has  given  to  the  rest  of  the  world 
little  except  its  tropical  products,  its  gold  and  sil- 
ver, and  that  most  valuable  of  root  plants,  the  po- 
tato. 

30.  In  the  richness  and  variety  of  its  vegetation^ 
Brazil  surpasses  all  other  countries 


POLITICAL   GEOGRAPHY.  309 

81.  Agriculture  and  stock-raising,  are  the  chief 
occupations.  The  staple  productions  for  export 
are  coffee,  of  which  it  supplies  three-fourths  of  the 
whole  quantity  used  in  the  world ;  and  sugar,  in 
the  production  of  which  it  is  second  only  to  Cuba. 

32.  Chili  is  the  most   enterprising  country  of 
South  America,  and  has  a  large  proportion  of  Eu- 
ropean inhabitants. 

33.  The  British  Isles  consist  of  Great  Britian  and 
Ireland,  together  with  numerous   small   adjacent 
islands. 

34.  The  name  British  Empire  is  applied  to  the 
Kingdom  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  and  its  nu- 
merous colonies  and  possessions  in  various  parts 
of  the  world. 

35.  The  government  is  a  hereditary  limited  mon- 
archy.    The  laws  are  made  by  Parliament,  which 
is  composed  of  the  House  of  Lords  and  the  House 
of  Commons. 

36.  England  is  the  largest,  most  populous,  and 
most  important  division  of  the  United  Kingdom. 

37.  Its  vast  deposits  of  coal,  iron,  and  other  min- 
erals, its  productive  soil,  its  extent  of  sea-coast,  its 
great  number  of  good  harbors  and  navigable  bays 
and  river-mouths,  and  its  central  situation  for  the 
commerce  of  the  world,  are  the  principal  sources 
of  the  wealth  and  power  of  England. 

38.  Commercially,  England  ranks  as  the  foremost 
of  countries. 

39.  It  is  rich  in  mines  of  copper,  iron  and  coal. 


310  THE   NORMAL    QUESTION   BOOK. 

40.  Manufacturing,  agriculture  and  the  fisheries. 

41.  The  Highlanders  are  the  descendants  of  the 
native  race  of  Britain,  and  speak  a  Celtic  language 
called  Gaelic.     The  inhabitants  of  the  Lowlands 
belong  to  the  same  race  as  the  English,  and  speak 
the  English  language. 

42.  It  is  celebrated  for  its  iron  and  cotton  man- 
ufactories. 

43.  Ireland  is  a  beautiful  and  lertile  island,  about 
the  size  of  the  State  of  Maine. 

44.  Politically,  it  is  divided  into  four  provinces, 
Ulster,  Leinester,  Munster  and  Connaught,  repre- 
senting four  ancient  kingdoms,  and  these  are  sub- 
divided into  thirty-two  counties. 

45.  Dublin,  the  metropolis,  a  beautiful  city  and  a 
seat  of  culture;    Belfast,  the  center  of  the  linen 
manufacture  and  trade,  and  Cork,  noted  for  its 
splendid  harbor,  and  its  ship-building  and  trade. 

46.  Europe  contains  four  empires,  Russia,  Tur- 
key, Germany,  and  Austria. 

47.  Two  republics,  France  and  Switzerland. 

48.  There  are  ten  independent  kingdoms,  Nor- 
way, Sweden,  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  Spain, 
Portugal,  Italy,  Greece,  Denmark,  Belgium,  and 
Holland. 

49.  Russia  and  Turkey  are  absolute ;  Germany, 
Austria  and  the  ten  kingdoms  are  limited  mon- 
archies. 

50.  The  total  population  of  Europe  is  estimated 


POLITICAL   GEOGRAPHY.  811 

at  300,000,000,  three-fourths  of  it  being  in  West- 
ern Europe. 

51.  It  is  nearly  all  Caucasian.  The  three  branches 
of  the  Caucasian  race  in  Europe  are  the  Celts  in 
the  west,  the  Teutons  from  the  Alps  to  Scotland 
and  Northern  Norway,  and  the  Slaves  in  the  Great 
Plain. 

52.  Sweden  occupies  the  eastern  and  Norway  the 
western  part. 

53.  Lumber  and  fish. 

54.  Grain,  iron  and  copper. 

55.  Hammerfest  is  the  most  northern  town  in 
the  world. 

56.  The  Laplanders  and  Finns,  who  belong  to 
the  Tartar  race.     Their  chief  wealth  is  the  rein- 
deer, which  supplies  them  with  food,  clothing,  and 
many  useful  articles. 

57.  Russia  is  the  most  extensive  of  empires,  in- 
cluding one-half  of  Europe  and  one-third  of  Asia. 
It  is  about  twice  the  size,  and  has  nearly  double 
the  population  of  the  United  States. 

58.  The  inhabitants  are  mostly  Slavonians.     Ger- 
mans predominate  in  the  provinces  bordering  on 
the  Baltic  Sea.     The  higher  classes  are  well  edu- 
cated, but  the  great  mass  of  the  people  can  not 
read  or  write. 

59.  Russia,    Germany,    Austria,    England    and 
France,  are  the  largest,  most  populous  and  power- 
ful, and  are  called  the  Five  Great  Powers. 


812        THE  NORMAL  QUESTION  BOOK. 

60.  Four  navigable  rivers — the  Po,  the  Rhone, 
the  Rhine,  and  the  Danube — flow  from  the  heart 
of  high  Europe  and  pass  through  the  plains  to  four 
seas. 

61.  France  is  one  of  the  oldest,  most  powerful 
and  most  highly  civilized  nations  of  Europe. 

62.  In  literature,  science  and  art  France  has  long 
been  distinguished ;  but  until  recently  the  educa- 
tion of  the  great  body  of  the  French  people  was 
almost  entirely  neglected.     Now,  however,  an  or- 
ganized system  of  popular  instruction  is  in  opera- 
tion under  the  control  of  the  government. 

63.  Agriculture,  manufacturing  and  commerce. 

64.  It  is  the  most  beautiful   and   attractive  of 
cities,  and   is   the  world's   center   of  modern  art, 
fashion  and  pleasure,  as  London  is  of  commerce 
and  of  business.     It  is  distinguished  for  its  mag- 
nificent   public    buildings,    public    gardens,    and 
places  of  amusement,  and  for  its  great  libraries, 
museums,  art  galleries,  and  scientific  schools,  and 
also  for  the  manufacture  and  sale  of  articles  of  art, 
ornament,  and  fashion.     It  is  second  only  to  Lon- 
don in  wealth  and  trade. 

65.  Politically  the  German  Empire  consists  of 
twenty-six  States. 

66.  The  Kingdom  of  Prussia,  which   embraces 
two-thirds  of  the  area  of  Germany  and  a  majority 
of  its  population, — and  the  three  kingdoms  of  Ba- 
varia, Saxony,  and  Wurtemburg.  The  other  twenty- 


POLITICAL   GEOGRAPHY.  313 

States  are  small  in  extent,  and  are  variously 
called  grand  duchies,  duchies,  principalities,  etc. 

67.  The  area  of  Germany  is  nearly  the  same  aa 
that  of  France,  being  208,000  square  miles.     Popu- 
lation is  about  the  same  as  that  of  the  United  States. 

r*f 

68.  The  leading  industries  ar6  agriculture,  man- 
ufacturing, mining  and  commerce. 

69.  Wheat,  wines,  wool,  and  manufactures  are 
the  principal  exports.     In  manufactures  Germany 
is  behind  England  and  France.  \    / 

70.  In  education  Germany  is  the  foremost  coun- 
try in  Europe.  It  has  a  fine  system  of  public  schools, 
and  education  is  compulsory. 

71.  Austria  proper  and  the  kingdom  of  Hungary, 
together  with  the  Polish  States  to  the  north  of  the 
Carpathian  mountains. 

72.  As  Austria  has  but  little  sea- coast,  the  foreign 
trade  is  limited. 

73.  About  one  half  of  the  population  belong  to 
the  Slavonic  race,  and  one  fifth  to  the  Germanic; 
one-sixth  are  Magyars,  and  the  rest  are  made  up 
of  Roumanians,  Jews,  Gypsies,  Greeks,  etc. 

74.  Vienna  is  the  finest  city  of  Central  Europe. 
Pesth,   the   chief  commercial   city   of    Hungary; 
Prague,  in  Bohemia,  Trieste,  etc. 

75.  Denmark  consists  of  the  peninsula  of  Jut- 
land and  of  the  adjacent  islands  at  the  entrance  of 
the  Baltic,  the  largest  being  Zealand  and  Ftinen. 

76.  Denmark  is  mainly  an  agricultural  and  graz- 


314         THE  NORMAL  QUESTION  BOOK. 

ing  country,  but  many  Danes  are  engaging  in  fish 
ing,  or  in  a  seafaring  life. 

77.  Some  parts  are  even  lower  than  the  ocean  at 
Mgh  tide,  and  would  be  inundated  if  they  were  not 
protected  by  extensive  dykes. 

78.  The  western  part  of  Belgium,  watered  by  the 
Scheldt  and  its  tributaries,  is  a  continuation  of  the 
flats  of  Holland. 

79.  Switzerland   has  the   sublimest   scenery   in 
Europe. 

80.  The  manufacture  of  small  articles,  such  as 
watches,  jewelry,  silk  stuffs,  ribbons  and  toys,  is 
the  chief  occupation. 

81.  In  the  sixteenth  century,  Spain  was  the  great- 
est nation  in  Europe ;  but,  owing  to  bad  govern- 
ment, it  has  sunk  to  the  position  of  a  second-rate 
power,  and  is  neither  progressive  nor  highly  civil- 
ized. 

82.  The  leading  pursuit  is  the  culture  of  the  vine, 
from  which  port  wine  is  made,  and  of  the  olive  and 
semi-tropical  fruits. 

83.  The  Spanish. 

84.  The  Italians  are  the  purest  representatives 
of  the  Latin  race,  and  their   language  comes   di- 
rectly from  the  Latin.     The  people  are  generally 
industrious,  frugal   and   temperate,   but   excitable 
and  passionate. 

85.  The  silk  manufactures  of  Italy  are  the  most 
important  of  Europe. 

86.  Every  part  of  Rome  contains  remains  of  tern- 


POLITICAL   GEOGRAPHY.  SH» 

pies,  baths,  tombs,  arches,  and  columns  which  ex- 
cite admiration. 

87.  Five  hundred  years  before  the  birth  of  Christ 
Greece  was  the  most  civilized  of  nations.     Its  re- 
publics were  famous  for  their  illustrious  soldiers, 
artists,  philosophers,  poets  and  historians. 

88.  A  large  part  of  the  people  are  engaged  in 
raising  sheep  and  goats. 

89.  The  Turks  belong  to  the  Mongolian  race. 

90.  The  empire  of  the  Turks  is  more  properly  an 
Asiatic  power. 

91.  The  Mongolians,   500,000,000;   Malay,  20,- 
000,000 ;  Caucasian,  180,000,000. 

92.  The  fertile  plains  of  China  and  tropical  Asia 
are  the  great  seats  of  population.     In  this  region 
civilized  nations   have   existed  for  thousands   of 
years,  but  this  civilization  has  long  been  stationary. 

93.  They  rank  among  the  longest  and  largest  on 
the  globe. 

94.  The  English,  the  Russians,  and  the  Dutch 
are  the  only  European  nations  that  possess  exten- 
sive dominions  in  Asia.     Siberia  and  Georgia  form 
parts  of  the  Russian  Empire;  India  and  the  West- 
ern Coast  of  Farther  India  belong  to  England;  and 
the  greater  portion  of  the  East  Indian  Archipelago 
is  governed  by  the  Dutch. 

95.  The  government  is  an  absolute  monarchy. 

96.  The  Chinese  Empire  is  one  of  five  great  gov- 


316         THE  NORMAL  QUESTION  BOOK. 

ernraents  which  together  cover  more  than  half  of 
the  land  surface  of  the  globe.  These  are,  in  the 
order  of  their  area,  the  British  Empire,  the  Russian 
Empire,  the  Chinese  Empire,  the  United  States  and 
Brazil. 

97.  The  Empire  is  divided  into  three  parts: 

(1)  China  proper. 

(2)  Mantchooria. 

(3)  The  Colonies,  including  Thibet,  Mongolia, 
Little  Turkestan,  and  Soongaria. 

98.  The  total  population  of  the  Chinese  Empire 
is  estimated  at  425,000,000.     This  is  the  densest 
population  in  the  world. 

99.  The  civilization  of  China  was  already  flour- 
ishing at  a  time  when  the  Christian  nations  had 
no  existence.     With  the  exception  of  the  steam 
engine  and  the  electric  telegraph,  there  is  scarcely 
any  great  invention  of  modern  times  which  has  not 
been  in  use  among  the  Chinese  for  many  centuries. 
Still,  they  can  not  be  regarded  as  a  progressive 
people,  and  their  conceit  prevents  their  learning 
new  ideas.     It  is  but  recently  that  China  has  been 
opened  to  the  world. 

100.  The  empire  of  Japan  is  composed  of  islands, 
the  largest  of  which  are  JSTiphon,  Yesso  or  Jesso, 
Kiusiu  and  Sikoke. 

101.  The  Japanese  are  the  most  highly  civilized 
and  the  most  progressive  of  the  Mongolian  race. 
They  are  now  rapidly  introducing  railroads,  tele- 
graphs, and  improved  machinery  of  all  kinds,  and 


POLITICAL   GEOGRAPHY.  317 

have  established  public  and  scientific  schools  under 
the  instruction  of  European  and  American  teach- 
ers. 

102.  Africa  extends  between  the  parallels  of  37° 
north  and  35°  south  latitude.    "  It  is  surrounded  on 
all  sides  by  the  ocean,  except  where  it  is  united  to 
Asia  by  the  Isthmus  of  Suez. 

103.  It  has  few  projections  of  land  or  inbreak- 
ings  of  the  sea,  and  is  the  most  regular  of  all  the 
grand  divisions.     Its  figure  resembles  that  of  an 
irregular  triangle. 

104.  Africa  is  remarkable  for  its  high   surface, 
extensive  deserts,  and  hot  climate. 

105.  The  mountains  of  Africa  are : 

(1)  The  Atlas  range,  in  the  north-west. 

(2)  The  mountains  of  Abyssinia. 

(3)  The  mountains  of  the  Great  Lake  Region, 
around  the  sources  of  the  Nile,  in  which  is  Kili- 
manjaro  (20,000  feet  high),  the  loftiest  peak  of 
Africa. 

(4)  The  mountains  of  South  Africa,  terminat- 
ing in  Table  Mountain,  in  Cape  Colony. 

(5)  The  Kong  Mountains,  along  the  Guinea 
Coast. 

106.  The    African    rivers   are    few   in    number, 
though  some  of  them  are  noted  for  their  great 
length.     The  most  important  are  the  Nile,  Niger, 
Congo,  Zambesi,  and  Orange. 

107.  In  the  equatorial  region  of  Africa  is  a  series 
of  lakes  which  in  size  rival,  if  they  do  not  surpass, 
the  Great  Lakes  of  North  America.    The  largest 


318         THE  NORMAL  QUESTION  BOOK. 

of  these  are  lakes  Albert,  Victoria,  and  Tangan- 
yika. 

108.  The  productions  of  Africa  comprise  grain, 
cotton,  sugar,  coffee,  tobacco,  indigo,  ivory,  ebony, 
ostrich  feathers,  palm  oil,  and  tropical  fruits. 

109.  All  the  native  governments  are  despotisms, 
and,  except  in  Egypt  and  the  Barbary  States,  are 
of  the  rudest  and  simplest  description. 

110.  The  population   of  Africa  is  estimated  at 
193,000,000.     They  belong  to  two  races,  the  Cau- 
casian, and  the  Ethiopian. 

111.  Egypt,  the  most  important  and  most  inter-* 
esting  country  of  Africa,  occupies  the  lower  portion 
of  the  Nile  valley,  reaching  from  the  Mediterranean 
to  the  first  cataract,  a  distance  of  between  500  and 
600  miles. 

112.  Egypt  is  celebrated  for  its  magnificent  pyra- 
mids, temples,  obelisks,  statues,  and  tombs   built 
more  than  four  thousand  years  ago. 

113.  Egypt,  Nubia,  Abyssinia,  Morocco,  Algeria, 
Tunis,  Tripoli,  the  Sahara,  Soudan  and  Equatorial 
Africa,  Senegambia,  Sierra  Leone,  Liberia,  Guinea 
Coast,  Cape  Colony  and  Natal,  Orange  Free  State, 
Transvaal  Republic,  Madagascar  and  Zanzebar. 

114.  Australia  comprises  the  continental  island 
of  Australia  and  the  large  islands  of  New  Guinea, 
New  Zealand,  Tasmania  (or  Van  Diemen  Land,) 


POLITICAL   GEOGRAPHY.  819 

together  with  many  small  islands  and  groups  of 
islands  adjacent  to  Australia. 

115.  The   inhabitants   are   chiefly   British,   and 
their  principal  occupations  are  mining,  agriculture, 
and  grazing.     The  original  inhabitants  of  Austra- 
lia are  short  and  stout,  with  small  heads,  flat  noses, 
thick  protruding  lips,  long,  coarse  hair,  and  of  a 
black  or  dark  brown  complexion. 

/ 

116.  (1)  Queensland   occupies   the  north-eastern 
part  of  the  continent.     Brisbane  is  the  capital. 

(2)  New  South  Wales  lies  south  of  Queens- 
land>     Sydney  is  the  capital. 

(3)  Victoria  lies  south  of  New  South  Wales. 
Melbourne  is  the  capital. 

(4)  South  Australia  lies  west  of  Victoria  and 
New  South  Wales.     The  capital  is  Adelaide. 

(5)  West  Australia.     Perth  is  the  capital. 

(6  and  7)  In  North  Australia  and  Alexandra 
Land,,  no  settlements  have  yet  been  made. 

(8)  Tasmania.     Hobart  Town  is  the  capital. 

117.  The  colonies  are  politically  independent  of 
one  another,  and  are  governed  by  representatives 
chosen  by  universal  suffrage,  and  by  executive  of- 
ficers appointed  by  the  crown. 

118.  Oceanica  is  the  great  island  division  of  the 
earth.     It  includes  Malaysia,  Australia  and  Poly- 
nesia.    The  extent  of  the  land  surface  is  4,500,000 
square  miles. 


320  THE   NORMAL   QUESTION   BOOK. 


QUESTIONS  ON  PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


1.  Define  physical  geography. 

2.  Into  what  classes  may  the  objects  of  which 
physical  geography  treats,  be  divided  ? 

3.  What  is  the  probable  condition  of  the  inte- 
rior of  the  earth  ? 

4.  What  considerations  indicate  that  the  earth 
is  stilj  m  a  molten  condition? 

5.  What  phenomena  does  the  heated  interior 
produce  ? 

6.  What  is  a  volcano  ? 

7.  What  is  the  usual  shape  of  a  volcano? 

8.  Where  else  may  the  crater  be  located  ? 

9.  What  is  the  width  of  craters  ? 

10.  Upon  what  does  the  slope  of  volcanoes  de- 
pend? 

11.  Into  what  two  classes  may  they  be  divided? 

12.  Define  active  volcanoes. 

13.  Define  extinct  volcanoes.  ' 

14.  What  is  the  number  of  volcanoes? 

15.  What  is  their  ordinary  arrangement? 

16.  Give  examples. 

17.  What  apparent  exceptions  to  this  rule? 

18.  What  is  the  peculiarity  in  the  distribution 
of  volcanoes  ? 


PHYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY.  321 

19.  What  explanation  is  given  of  this  fact? 

20.  Locate  the  two  volcanic  zones  which  encir- 
cle the  earth. 

21.  In  what  regions  of  the  earth  is  the  greatest 
volcanic  activity  displayed? 

22.  What  theory  is  advanced  as  a  possible  cause^ 
of  volcanoes? 

23.  Mention  other  volcanic  phenomena. 

24.  What  are  earthquakes? 

25.  What  three  kinds  of  earthquake  movement 
have  been  noted  ? 

26.  What  is  the  usual  duration  of  earthquakes? 

27.  What  is  an  earthquake  area  ? 

28.  What  is  the  cause  of  earthquakes? 

29.  What  is  the  law  of  their  distribution  ? 

30.  What  connection  exists   between  volcanoes 
and  earthquakes? 

31.  What  relation  between  earthquakes  and  at- 
mospheric conditions  ? 

32.  Where  are  the  land  masses  of  the  globe  lo- 
cated ? 

33.  Of  what  does  the  land  consist? 

34.  Under  what  two  aspects  may  the   land  be 
studied  ? 

35.  What  separation  of  the  land  masses  is  marked 
by  the  zone  of  fracture? 

36.  What  is  the  common  form  of  the  land  masses? 

37.  What  difference  in  the  direction  of  prolonga- 
tion between  the  eastern  and  western  continents  ? 

38.  What  difference  in  other  respects  results  from 
this? 

21 


322        THE  NORMAL  QUESTION  BOOK. 

39.  What  differences  in  outline  do  the  continents 
exhibit? 

40.  What  influence  has  the  articulations  of  coast 
upon  a  country  and  its  people? 

41.  What  fact  is  true  of  well  articulated  coun- 
tries ? 

42.  How  do  the  continents  compare  m  this  re- 
spect ? 

43.  What  constitutes  the  relief  of  a  country? 

44.  What  two  forms  of  relief  exist  ? 

45.  What  influence  has  the  relief  of  a  country 
upon  its  climate,  life,  etc.? 

46.  What  proportion  of  the  continents  is  occu- 
pied by  plains? 

47.  How  may  plains  be  classified  as  to  their  for- 
mation and  differences  in  character  of  surface? 

48.  What  are  plateaus  ? 

49.  Define  a  mountain  chain. 

50.  Define  a  mountain  system. 

51.  How  are  mountains  supposed  to  have  been 
formed  ? 

52.  What  two  classes  of  mountains  as  to  manner 
of  formation  ? 

53.  What  two  classes  of  valleys? 

54.  What  are  continental  axes  ? 

55.  What  general  law  of  relief  has  been  observed 
from  a  study  of  the  continents  ? 

56.  What  proportion  of  the  land  surface  do  the 
islands  form? 

57.  What  two  classes  of  islands? 

58.  Define  continental  islands. 

59.  What  similarity  do  they  bear  to  the  main- 
land, and  what  does  this  indicate  ? 


PHYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY.  323 

60.  Define  oceanic  islands  ? 

61.  What  two  classes  of  oceanic  islands? 

62.  How  do  continental  islands  compare  in  size 
with  oceanic  islands? 

63.  What  contrast  in  the  rock  material  of  the 
two  classes  of  islands? 

64.  Describe  the  common  forms  of  coral  islands. 

65.  Upon  what  are  coral  islands  built? 

66.  Where  are  coral  islands  found,  and  why  are 
they  confined  to  these  regions  ? 

67.  What  office  do  the  waters  of  the  earth  per- 
form ? 

68.  What  is  the  composition  of  water? 

69.  What  important  peculiarity  does  water  pos- 
sess? 

70.  What  is  the  great  reservoir  of  water? 

71.  How  are  the  waters  dispersed  over  the  earth  ? 

72.  What  are  the  sources  of  rivers? 

73.  Where  are  springs  most  numerous? 

74.  Upon  what  does  the  temperature  of  springs 
depend? 

75.  What  is  the  river  system? 

76.  Define  river  basin. 

77.  Define  water-shed. 

78.  Upon  what  does  the  volume  of  a  river  de- 
pend ? 

79.  What  are  canons? 

80.  What  are  deltas  and  estuaries? 

81.  What  is  erosion? 

82.  Define  lakes. 

83.  What  are  mountain  lakes? 

84.  What  place  have  lakes  in  the  economy  of 
nature  ? 


324        THE  NORMAL  QUESTION  BOOK. 

85.  What  is  the  cause  of  the  saltuess  of  some 
lakes  ? 

86.  Where  are  lakes  most  numerous  ? 

87.  How  is  the  sea  divided  ? 

88.  How  are  ocean  basins  divided? 

89.  Describe  the  Pacific  basin. 

90.  Describe  the  Atlantic  basin. 

91.  Wherein  do  the  ocean  basins  present  great 
differences  ? 

92.  How  are  coast  waters  classified? 

93.  What  is  known  of  the  ocean  bed? 

94.  How  are  the  depths  estimated  in  the  absence 
of  soundings? 

95.  What  are  the  greatest  depths  of  the  sea? 

96.  Describe  waves. 

97.  What  causes  the  advance  of  the  wave  ? 

98.  What  retards  or  breaks  it  ? 

99.  Describe  tides. 

100.  Define  flood  and  ebb  tides. 

101.  How  are  tides  produced? 

102.  What  are  tidal  waves  ? 

103.  Define  spring  and  neap  tides. 

104.  How  is  the  height  of  tides  modified! 

105.  What  phenomena   are   produced  by  these 
differences  in  level  ? 

106.  Describe  oceanic  currents. 

107.  What  is  the  cause  of  currents? 

108.  To  what  three  classes  of  currents  doas  dif- 
ference of  temperature  give  rise? 

109.  What  modifies  the  direction  of  the  polar  £*nt{ 
return  currents? 

110.  What  office   does   the  atmosphere  of  the 
earth  perform? 


PHYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY.  325 

111.  What  is  its  composition? 

112.  What  is  the  depth  of  the  atmosphere? 

113.  What  effect  does  the  great  compression  of 
the  atmosphere  at  the  earth's  surface  produce? 

114.  What  is  climate? 

115.  Define  astronomical  climate. 

116.  Define  physical  climate. 

117.  What  is  the  general  law  of  astronomical 
climate. 

118.  Why  is  temperature  greater  at  the  equator, 
and   why  does  it  gradually  diminish  toward   the 
poles? 

119.  What  modifications  of  climate  do  the  earth's 
motions  produce  ? 

120.  Where  are  the  general  deviations  from  the 
astronomical  climate  most  marked? 

121.  What  are  isothermal  lines  ? 

122.  Where   are   the   extreme   deviations   from 
astronomical  .climate  found? 

123.  What  difference  between  oceanic  and  conti- 
nental climate  ? 

124.  What  is  the  origin  of  winds  ? 

125.  How  may  they  be  classified  ? 

126.  Where   are    the   regions  of    these   several 
classes  of  winds  located  ? 

127.  What  are  the  equatorial  calms  and  how  pro- 
duced? 

128.  Name  some  important  constant  winds. 

129.  What  gives  direction  to  these  winds? 

130.  Name  some  periodical  and  variable  winds. 

131.  Upon  what  does  the  distribution  of  rain  de- 
pend? 

132.  How  are  clouds  formed? 


326  THE  NOEMAL   QUESTION   BOOK. 

133.  Define  dew,  snow,  hail,  and  frost. 

134.  What  portion  of  the  earth's  surface  receives 
no  rain,  and  why  ? 

135.  Where  are  storms  most  violent? 

136.  Describe  glaciers. 

137.  What  is  the  origin  of  glaciers  ? 

138.  Where  is  the  most  remarkable  glacier  re° 
gioo  ? 

139.  What  evidences  exist  of  former  systems  of 
glaciers  ? 

140.  What  is  the  snow  line? 

141.  What  causes  lightning  and  thunder? 

142.  Name  some  other  electrical  phenomena. 

143.  What  constitutes  the  flora  of  a  country? 

144.  What  gives  variety  to  the  plant  life  of  the 
globe  ? 

145.  What  two  forms  of  distribution  of  vegeta- 
tion do  we  find  ? 

146.  In  what  region  is  found  greatest  luxuriance, 
and  why  ? 

147.  What  similarity  exists  between  the  vertical 
and  horizontal  distribution  ? 

148.  What  constitutes  the  fauna  of  a  country? 

149.  What  law  of  distribution  prevails  ? 

150.  What  exception  to  this  rule  in  the  case  of 
marine  animals? 

151.  What  marks  the  range  of  animals? 

152.  What  exception  to  this  rule? 

153.  What  appears  to  be  the  basis  of  distribution 
of  plants? 

154.  What  modifies  the  fauna  of  each  continent? 

155.  What  evidences  exist  as  .to  the  unity  of  the 
human  race  ? 


PHYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY.  327 

156.  What  three  strongly  marked  types  exist  * 

157.  What  tnree  secondary  races  are  found? 

158.  What  is  supposed  to  have  produced  the  di- 
versity of  races  ? 

159.  What  is  the  law  of  perfection  of  type  in 
man? 

160.  Which  is  the  typical  or  normal  race  ? 


328        THE  NORMAL  QUESTION  BOOK. 


ANSWERS  TO  QUESTIONS  ON  PHYSICAL 
GEOGRAPHY. 


1.  Physical  Geography  treats  of  the  earth  in  its 
relations  to  nature  and  natural  laws. 

2.  Physical  Geography  treats  of  five  classes  of 
objects,  viz :    Land,  water,  air,  plants  and  animals. 

3.  The  interior  is  probably  still  in  a  semi-fluid 
or  pasty  condition. 

4.  The  spheroidal  form  of  the  earth  is  exactly 
what  calculation  shows  would  have  been  acquired, 
had  the  earth  once  been  in  a  molten  state  and  ex- 
posed to  about  the  same  velocity  of  rotation  on  its 
axis  that  it  now  has.    This  seems  to  point  to  a  for- 
mer fluidity,  and  renders  its  probable  that  the  pres- 
ent crust  or  solid  part  has  been  formed  by  the 
gradual  cooling  of  the  melted  mass.     The  crust 
does  not  appear  to  have  reached,  as  yet,  any  very 
considerable  thickness,  and  the  interior  is,  there- 
fore, probably  still  in  a  semi-fluid  state. 

5.  Volcanoes,   earthquakes,   hot   springs,  non- 
volcanic  igneous  eruptions,  and  the  gradual  sub- 
sidences or  elevations  of  the  crust. 

6.  A  volcano  is  a  mountain  or  other  elevation, 


PHYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY.  329 

from  which  the  materials  of  the  interior  escape  to 
the  surface. 

7.  A  volcanic  mountain  is  usually  of  conical 
shape,  with  a  circular  basin  or  depression  at  its 
summit,  called  the  crater.     In  the  center  of  the 
crater  is  the  mouth  of  a  perpendicular  shaft  or 
chimney. 

8.  It  may  be  either  on  the  top  or  sides  of  the 
mountain. 

9.  Craters  differ  greatly  in  size,  the  larger  vary- 
ing from  2000  to  18,000  feet. 

10.  The  slope  of  a  volcano  depends  on  the  mat- 
ter of  which  it  is  composed.      Lava  cones  have 
very  gentle  slopes;  tufa  cones,  or  those  originally 
formed  of  cinders  wet  with  water  and  steam,  have 
a  steeper  surface;  and  cones  composed  of  dry  cin- 
ders have  the  steepest  slopes  of  all,  their  inclination 
sometimes  being  as  great  as  45  degrees. 

11.  Volcanoes  ma}7  be  distinguished  as  active  and 
extinct. 

12.  Active  volcanoes  are  such  as  are  either  in  a 
constant  state  of  eruption,  or  have  eruptions  from 
time  to  time,  with  intervals  of  rest. 

13.  Extinct  volcanoes  are  such  as  are   now   at 
rest  but  were  subject  to  eruptions  in  former  ages, 
as  is  shown  by  their  form  and  structure,  and  the 
presence  of  craters. 

14.  The  number  of  volcanoes  is  not  accurately 
known.     The  best  authorities  estimate  it  at  about 
672,  of  which  270  are  active.     Of  these  latter,  175 
are  on  islands,  and  95  on  the  coasts  of  continents. 


330        THE  NORMAL  QUESTION  BOOK. 

15.  Volcanoes,  though  they  are  but  local  and 
apparently  independent  accumulations  of  materials, 
ordinarily  occur  in  lines  more  or  less  irregular. 

16.  The  six  voicanoes  of  Mexico  are  on  a  line 
which,  when  prolonged  into  the  Pacific,  strikes  the 
volcanic  island  of  Socorro.     The  volcanoes  of  South 
America  are  all  on  the  line  of  the  Andes;  and 
those  of  North  America,  on  the  line  of  the  Sierra 
Nevada  and  Cascade  Mountains.    Numerous  exam- 
ples are  also  found  in  other  quarters  of  the  globe. 

17.  The  apparent  exception  to  this  rule  is  found 
where  volcanoes  seem  isolated,  or  form  groups  con- 
sisting of  a  central  volcano  surrounded  by  second- 
ary cones.     But  even  in  this  case  the  linear  ar- 
rangement is  apparent,  since  the  groups  themselves 
form  long  bands,  as  in  the  Polynesian  Islands. 

18.  Nearly  all  the  volcanoes  on  the  earth's  sur- 
face are  situated  along  the  mountain  ranges  and 
belts  of  islands  which  skirt  the  shores  of  the  con- 
tinents, while   the  interior  is  almost  destitute  of 
them. 

19.  As    volcanoes    are    nothing    but    openings 
through  the  earth's  crust,  that  permit  an  escape 
from  the  pasty  interior,  they  will  occur  only  where 
the  crust  is  weakest.     This  will  be  on  the  borders 
of  sinking  oceans,  in  the  line  of  fracture  formed 
by  the  gradual  separation  of  the  ocean's  bed  from 
the  coasts  of  the  continent. 

20.  The  first   zone   includes   the   vast  array  of 


PHYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY.  331 

mountain  chains,  peninsulas,  and  bands  of  islands 
which  encircle  the  Pacific  Ocean  with  a  belt  of 
burning  mountains.  The  second  zone,  though  less 
continuous,  is  hardly  less  remarkable.  It  is  the 
belt  of  broken  lands  and  inland  seas,  which,  extend- 
ing round  the  globe,  separates  the  northern  from 
the  southern  continents. 

21.  The  volcanic  forces  display  the  greatest  in- 
tensity at  the   intersections  of  the   two   volcanic 
zones,  in  Central  America  and  the  East  Indian 
Archipelago. 

22.  The  rain-water  which,  having  entered  the 
ground,    instead   of  reappearing  in   the   form  of 
springs  or  artesian  wells,  penetrates  deep  into  these 
subterranean  cavities,  may  become  so  heated,  un- 
der the  high  pressure  to  which  it  is  subject,  as  to 
produce  the  usual  volcanic  phenomena. 

23.  Mud   volcanoes — small   hillocks    that    emit 
streams  of  hot  mud  and  water  from  their  craters, 
but  never  molten  rock.     Fields  of  fire.     In  certain 
localities  inflammable  gas  issues  from  openings  in 
the  ground.     When  lighted  it  burns  for  a  consid- 
erable  time.     Solfataras — regions   where    sulphur 
vapors  escape,  forming  incrustations. 

24.  Earthquakes  are  movements  of  the  earth's 
crust,  varying  in  intensity  from  a  hardly  percepti- 
ble vibration  to  violent  convulsions,  which  change 
the  face  of  the  ground  .and  overthrow  the  most  sub- 
stantial works  of  man. 


THE  NORMAL   QUESTION   BOOK. 

25.  (1)  The  wave-like  or  undulatory. 

(2)  The  vertical  motion  which  acts  from  be« 
neath  like  the  explosion  of  a  mine. 

(3)  The  whirling  or  rotary  motion. 

26.  When  the  area  of  disturbance  is  large,  shocks 
f)f  varying  intensity  generally  follow  each  other  at 
irregular  intervals.     Though,  in  general,  the  vio- 
lence  of  the    shock  is  soon   passed,  disturbances 
may  occur  at  intervals  of  days  and  weeks,  or  even 
years. 

27.  There  are  circumscribed  regions  in  which  the 
surface  is  liable  to  be  shaken  simultaneously,  such 
a  region  being  called  an  earthquake  area. 

28.  It  is  now  generally  believed  that  the  princi- 
pal cause  of  earthquakes  is  the  strain  produced  by 
the  contraction  of  a  cooling  crust. 

29.  Earthquakes  mayt  occur  in  any  part  of  the 
world,  but  are  most  frequent  in  volcanic  districts. 
They  are  more   frequent  in  mountainous  than  in 
flat  countries. 

30.  The  analogy  in  the  distribution  of  earthquakes 
and  volcanoes  is  evident,  yet  the  former  occupy  a 
far  more  extensive  domain  than  the  latter.     Both 
are  most  intense  in  their  action  along  the  great 
fractures  of  the  earth's  crust;  yet  we  are  not,  on 
that  account,  to  conclude  that  the  one  is  the  cause 
of  the  other;  they  only  require  similar  conditions 
for  their  manifestation. 

31.  "Within  the  tropics,  especially,  earthquakes 


PHYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY.  333 

are  most  frequent  in  that  part  of  the  year  in  which 
the  greatest  atmospheric  disturbances  take  place. 
They  are  most  dreaded  at  the  beginning  of  the 
rainy  season,  when  the  monsoons  are  changing  di- 
rection. 

32.  The  land  masses  are  crowded  together  around 
the  north  pole,  the  northern  limits  being  about  the 
78th  parallel.     Thence  they  extend   towards  the 
south  in  three  vast  divergent  tracts,  terminating  in 
points  widely  separated  one  from  another. 

33.  The  land  consists  of  six  great  bodies,  called 
continents,   and   a  multitude  of  small  fragments 
called  islands,  which  skirt  the  shores  of  the  conti- 
nents, or  dot  the  broad  expanse  of  the  sea. 

34.  Every  continent  presents  itself  to  the  ob- 
server in  a  twofold  aspect — as  a  surface,  with  pe- 
culiarities of  horizontal  form  and  outline,  given  by 
the  line  of  contact  of  land  and  water;  and  as  a 
solid,  with  peculiarities  of  vertical  form,  given  by 
the  elevation  of  its  surface  above  the  level  of  the 
sea. 

35.  Each  of  the  three  tracts  of  land  is  invaded 
nearly  midway  by  the  ocean,  or  by  great  inland 
seas,  from  which  there  results,  in  each,  a  belt  of 
broken  lands,  peninsulas  and  islands.     Within  this 
belt  are  the  great  archipelagoes  of  the  East  and 
West  Indies,  and  the  peninsulas. of  Southern  Asia 
and  Europe. 

36.  Every  great  continental  mass  has  a  figure 
more    or    less    triangular.     Australia    alone    ap- 
proaches a  quadrilateral  form. 


334  THE  NORMAL   QUESTION   BOOK. 

37.  In  the  two  Americas,  the  sharpest  angle  of 
the  continental  figure  is  turned  towards  the  south, 
and  the  greatest  elongation  is  in  the  direction  of 
the  meridians.     In  Asia-Europe,  on  the  contrary 
the  sharpest  angle  is  towards  the  west,  and  th 
greatest  elongation  of  the  double  continent  is  ia 
the  direction  of  the  parallels.     In  Africa  and  Aus- 
tralia, the  greatest  extent  from  east  to  west  is  ap- 
proximately equal  to  that  from  north  to  south. 

38.  America,  extending  about  9,000  miles  from 
north  to  south,  traverses  all  the  climatic  zones,  ex- 
hibiting, as  a  result,  great  variety  in  the  character 
of  its  plants  and  animals.     Asia-Europe  having, 
also,  a  length  of  9,000  miles,  has,  from  the  Pacific 
shores  to  the  Atlantic  a  general  similarity  of  cli- 
mate, vegetation  and  animals. 

39.  The  outlines  of  the  continents  exhibit  strik- 
ing differences.     Some  are  deeply   indented  with 
gulfs  and  inland  seas;  while  others  present  a  mas- 
sive form  without  indentations  or  projections  wor- 
thy of  notice. 

40.  They  increase  the  length  of  coast  line,  and 
the  contact  of  land  and  water ;  they  favor  the  for- 
mation of  convenient  harbors,  and  open  the  interior 
of  the  continents  to  commerce  by  sea.     The  sea 
penetrating  into  the  land  moderates  the  extremes 
of  temperature,  and  increases  the  moisture  of  the 
atmosphere.     Again,  the  subdivision  of  the  con- 
tinents into  peninsulas,  forming  diverse  physical 
regions,  secures  a  higher  development  of  human 
society  by  assisting  in  the  formation  of  distinct  na- 


PHYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY.  335 

tionalities;  like  those  created  in  the  great  penin- 
sulas of  India  and  Arabia,  Greece,  Italy  and  Spain. 

41.  The  deeply  indented,  well  articulated  conti- 
nents are,  and  have  always  been,  the  abode  of  the 
tnost  highly  civilized  nations. 

42.  Europe  surpasses  all  the  other  continents  in 
the  relative  magnitude  of  its  indentations  and  pro- 
jections; Asia  is  second;  North  America,  though 
considerably  less  indented,  still  has  peninsulas  bear- 
ing to  its  entire  area  the  proportion  of  1 : 14.     The 
southern  continents,  on  the  contrary,  are  nowhere 
deeply  penetrated  by  the  waters  of  the  ocean. 

43.  The  vertical  configuration  of  a  continent  or 
island — that  is,  its  elevation  as  a  whole,  varied  by 
plains,  table-lands,  mountains  and  valleys — is  called 
its  relief. 

44.  Elevations  in  mass,  and  linear  elevations. 

45.  A  difference  in  altitude  of  no  more  than  330 
feet,  is  sufficient  to  produce  a  difference  in  temper- 
ature of  1°  Fahrenheit,  being  equivalent  to  a  dif- 
ference of  seventy  miles  in  latitude.     An  increase 
in  altitude  of  but  a  few  thousand  feet,  therefore, 
changes  entirely  the  character  of  a  region,  like  a 
removal  of  it  from  torrid  to  temperate  latitudes,  or 
from  temperate  to  frigid.     The  relief  also  controls 
the  drainage  of  a  continent,  and  influences,  to  a 
certain  extent,  the  direction  and  character  of  the 
winds  and  the  distribution  of  rain. 

46.  Plains  cover  nearly  one-half  of  the  land  sur- 
face of  the  earth.     In  the  eastern  continent  they 


336  THE   NORMAL    QUESTION   BOOK. 

lie  mainly  in  the  north ;  in  the  western  they  oc- 
cupy the  central  portions. 

47.  Alluvial  plains  are  formed  of  materials  de- 
posited by  rivers  upon  overflowed  lands.     Marine 
plains,  so  called  because  they  seem  to  have  been 
formed  under  sea  water,  and  resemble  the  sandy 
bottom  of  an  ancient  ocean.     Undulating   plains 
have  the  surface  varied  by  swells  of  greater  or  less 
elevation,  but  rarely  above  the  general  level. 

48.  Plateaus,  also   called   table   lands  and  high 
plains,  are  tracts,  either  level  or  diversified  by  hill 
and  vale,  having  an  elevation  of  more  than  one 
thousand  feet  above  sea  level. 

49.  In  a  mountain  chain,  the  crest  or  summit  of 
the  range  separates  into  a  number  of  detached  por- 
tions, called  peaks;   below  the  peaks  the  entire 
range  is  united  in  a  solid  mass. 

50.  A  mountain  system  is  a  name  given  to  sev- 
eral connected  chains  or  ranges. 

51.  Most  mountain  chains  seem  to  have  been 
produced  by  tremendous  lateral  pressure  in  por- 
tions of  the  earth's  crust,  causing  either  long  folds 
or  deep  fissures  with  upturned  edges  rising  into 
high   ridges,   the   broken   strata   formi-ng  ragged 
peaks. 

52.  There   are   two  distinct  types  of  mountain 
chains — mountains  by  folding,  which  are  generally 


PHYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY.  387 

of  moderate  elevation ;  and  mountains  by  fracture, 
to  which  belong  the  highest  chains  of  the  globe. 

53.  Valleys  are  either  longitudinal  or  transverse. 

54.  The  great  dividing  ridges,  from  which  the 
continent,  as  a  whole,  slopes  in  opposite  directions, 
may  be  called  the  main  axis  of  the  continent.    The 
less  highlands,  separating  into  opposite  slopes  the 
part  of  the  continent  in  which  they  are  situated, 
form  a  secondary  axis. 

55.  All  the  long,  gentle  slopes  descend  towards 
the  Atlantic  Ocean  and  its  prolongation,  the  Arc- 
tic ;  while  all  the  short  and  rapid  slopes  are  directed 
towards  the  Pacific,  and  its  dependent,  the  Indian 
Ocean,  the  highest  lands  being  adjacent  to   the 
shores  of  the  greatest  oceans. 

56.  Of  the  53,000,000  square  miles  of  land,  nearly 
3,000,000,  or  about  one-seventeenth,  is  composed  of 
islands. 

57.  Islands  are  either  continental  or  oceanic. 

58.  Continental  islands  are  those  that  lie  near 
the  shores  of  continents. 

59.  From  the  close  resemblance  they  generally 
bear  to  the  geological  structure  of  the  mainland, 
they  are  probably  but  continuations  of  the  neigh- 
boring mountain  ranges,  or  continental  elevations. 
They  may,  therefore,  be  regarded  as  the  projections 
of  submerged  portions  of  the  neighboring  conti- 

22 


338  THE   NORMAL   QUESTION  BOOK. 

nents.    They  have  in  general,  the  same  lines  of  trend 
us  the  shores  of  the  mainland. 

60.  Oceanic  islands  comprise  those  far  away  from 
the  continent?. 

61.  Isolated  oceanic  islands  are  mainly  of  two 
kinds,  the  volcanic  and  the  coral. 

62.  Continental  islands,  as  a  rule,  are  larger  than 
oceanic  islands. 

63.  The  rocks  which  make  up  the  body  of  the 
continents  and  continental  islands — sandstone,  slate, 
granite,  and  the  various  metamorphic  rocks — are 
entirely  wanting  in  oceanic  islands.     The  latter  are 
composed  either  of  volcanic  substances,  or  of  lime- 
stone. 

64.  Though  of  a  great  variety  of  shapes,  they 
agree  in  one  particular,  viz :     They  consist  of  a 
low,  narrow  rim  of  coral  rock,  enclosing  a  body  of 
water  called  a  lagoon. 

65.  Reef-building  polyps  do  not  live  below  the 
depth  of  100  or  120  feet,  and  hence  require  a  foun- 
dation near  the  surface.     This  is  furnished  by  sub- 
marine mountains  and  plateaus,  or  the  slopes  of 
volcanic  cones  which  form  the  high  islands. 

66.  According  to  Dana,  the  reef-forming  coral 
polyp  is  not  found  in  regions  where  the  mean  an- 
nual temperature  of  the  waters  exceeds  68°  Fahr. 
Goral  islands  are  therefore  confined  to  those  parts 
of  tropical  waters  where  the  depth  does  not  greatly 
exceed  100  feet,  and  which  are  protected  from  cold 


PHYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY.  339 

ocean  currents,  from  the  influence  of  fresh  river 
waters,  and  are  remote  from  active  volcanoes. 

67.  By  disintegrating  and  rearranging  the  mate- 
rials of  the  earth's  crust,  it  was  the  principal  agent 
in  shaping  what  is  now  the  solid  land.  It  is  equally 
indispensable  in  carrying  on  the  processes  of  vege- 
table and  animal  life,  as  it  forms  the  larger  part 
of  all  organized  bodies. 

68.  Water  is  a  liquid,  composed  of  two  gases, 
oxygen  and  hydrogen,  chemically  combined  in  the 
ratio,  by  weight,  of  eight  to  one. 

69.  Water  contracts  in  volume  with  a  diminution 
of  its  temperature,  until  reduced  to  39.2°  Fahr., 
where  its  density  is  greatest.    Below  this  tempera- 
ture it  expands. 

But  for  this  curious  exception  in  the  physical 
properties  of  fresh  water,  at  least  three  fourths  of 
the  habitable  globe  would  be  incapable  of  sustain- 
ing its  present  life. 

70.  The  great  reservoir  of  terrestrial  waters  is 
the  sea. 

71.  By  slow  but  constant  evaporation  the  water 
is  lifted  into  the  atmosphere  in  the  form  of  vapor, 
which,  borne  by  the  winds  to  the  continents,  is 
there  condensed  and  falls  in  beneficent  rains. 

72.  The  water  which  issues  from  the  ground  as 
springs,  which  is  derived  from  the  melting  of  ice 
or  snow,  or  which  drains  directly  from  the  surface 
after  rainfall,  runs  down  the  slopes  of  the  land  and 


MO  THE   NORMAL   QUESTION  BOOK. 

collects  in  the  depressions  formed  by  the  intersec- 
tion of  the  slopes,  in  rills  or  rivulets,  which  at  last 
combine  in  larger  streams,  called  rivers. 

73.  Springs  are  most  numerous  in  and   around 
mountainous  regions. 

74.  The  temperature  of  a  spring  depends  much 
on  that  of  the  strata  through  which  its  waters  pass. 
Some  springs  are  icy  cold,  particularly  mountain 
regions.    Others,  coming  from  considerable  depths, 
are  warm,  hot,  and  even  boiling.    Their  heat  is  at- 
tributed in  some  cases  to  volcanic,  and  in  others  to 
chemical,  action. 

75.  Rivers  that  discharge  their  waters  into  the 
same  ocean  or  its  arms,  constitute  what  is  called  a 
rivsr  system.     Four  systems,  the  Atlantic,  Arctic, 
Pacific  and  Indian,  embrace  all  the  rivers  of  the 
globe,  except  a  few  which  are  absorbed  in  the  sand, 
aiid  others  that  empty  into  certain  inland  seas,  or 
lakes  not  connected  with  the  ocean,  whose  waters 
are  carried  oft'  by  evaporation. 

76.  The  entire  area  of  land  which  drains  into 
the  river  system  is  called  its  basin. 

77.  The  ridge  or  elevation  which  separates  two 
opposite  slopes,  is  called  a  water-shed. 

78.  The  amount  of  water  transported  by  a  stream 
is  by  no  means  proportionate  to  the  extent  of  its 
basin,  nor  to  the  length  of  its  course,  but  depends 
on  the  amount  of  rain  falling  upon  the  area  drained, 
and  the  ratio  of  evaporation  to  rainfall  throughout 
the  basin.    Extensive  forests  in  a  river  basin  aug- 


THE 

UNIVERSITY 


PHYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY.  341 

ment  the  volume  of  water,  for  they  both  increase 
the  rainfall  and  retard  the  evaporation  of  water 
from  the  soil. 

79.  A  deep  gorge,  ravine  or  gulch  between  high 
and  steep  banks,  worn  by  water  courses. 

80.  Deltas  and  estuaries  are  terms  appled  to  dif 
ferent  forms  of  river-mouths.     A  delta  is  formed 
by  the  detritus  or  earthy  material  which  the  river 
carries  along  from  the  upper  part  of  its  basin,  and 
which,  owing  to  the  decrease  of  velocity,  it  deposits 
near  the  mouth 

81.  The  wearing  away  by  rivers  of  the  rock-ma- 
terials over  which  they  flow,  is  called  erosion. 

82.  Lakes  are  bodies  of  water  collected  in  depres- 
sions of  the  land. 

83.  Mountain  lakes  are  valleys  or  chasms  filled 
by  streams.     They  are  long  and  narrow,  rarely  of 
extensive  area,  but  often  of  great  depth. 

84.  They  form  reservoirs,  which,  receiving  the 
surplus  waters  in  time  of  freshets,  equalize    the 
flow  of  rivers  and  prevent  destructive  inundations. 
In  their  basins  the  wild  mountain  torrents  find  rest, 
and  the  muddy  waters  deposit  their  sediment,  and 
flow  out  pure  and  transparent  with  a  gentle  cur- 
rent. 

85.  The  surfaces  of  the  continents  having  been 
the  beds  of  the  primeval  oceans,  the  presence  of 
salt  in  the  soil  is  a  natural  consequence.     Fresh 
water  streams  and  takes  wore  formed  only  after 
the  soil  had  been  thoroughly  washed  by  rains,  and 


342         THE  NORMAL  QUESTION  BOOK. 

the  salt  carried  away  by  streams  into  the  ocean. 
If  the  streams  receiving  the  substances  washed 
from  the  soil  by  the  rainfall,  do  not  flow  away  to 
the  ocean,  but  enter  inland  basins  without  outlet, 
the  lakes  formed  in  those  basins  will  necessarily  be 
salt. 

86.  Lakes  are  most  numerous  in  the  central  and 
northern    portions   of   Asia,   Europe,   and  North 
America.     The  southern  continents,  except  Africa, 
have  comparatively  few. 

87.  The  waters  of  the  sea  are  separated  by  the 
lands  into  three  great  oceans,  which  are  the  coun- 
terparts of  the  land  masses. 

88.  The  Atlantic  and  Pacific  Oceans  are  subdi- 
vided, each  having  a  northern  and  southern  basin, 
corresponding  to  the  northern  and  southern  conti- 
nents.    The  Indian  Ocean  has  only  a  southern  ba- 
sin; but  the  vast   depression    between    Asia   and 
Europe,  in  the  bottom  of  which  lie  the  Caspian 
and  Aral  Seas,  may  be  considered  as,  in  a  certain 
sense,  its  complement.     The  Arctic  is  properly  a 
continuation  of  the  Atlantic ;  the  Antartic,  also,  is 
not  properly  a  separate  ocean,  but  is  the  common 
center  from  which  the  three  great  basins  radiate. 

89.  The  Pacific  is  oval  in  outline  and  broadly 
open  at  the  south,  but  is  nearly  closed  at  the  north. 

90.  The  Atlantic  basin  has  been  likened  by  Hum- 
boldt  to  a  long  valley,  with  approximately  parallel 
sides.     This  is  the  only  basin  widely  open  at  the 
porth,  and,  stretching  from  pole  to  pole,  it  forma 


PHYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY.  343 

the  only  complete  channel  for  the  interchange  of 
polar  and  equatorial  waters. 

91.  The  three  great  ocean  basins  differ  in  regard 
to  the  position  and  character  of  the  branches,  by 
which  the  coasts  of  the  continents  are  indented. 

92.  Coast  waters  may  be  classified,  according  t<7 
their  form  and  their  position  in  respect  to  the  ad- 
jacent lands,  as  inland  seas,  border  seas,  and  gulfs 
or  bays. 

93.  Little  is  known,  in  detail,  in  regard  to  the 
conformation  of  the  bottom  of  the  sea.     But  nu- 
merous  soundings,  both   in  shallow  shore  waters 
and  in  the  deep  sea,  have  given  us  an  approximate 
idea   of  the   nature  of  the   beds  of  the  Atlantic 
Ocean,  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  the  Indian  Ocean, 
and  the  Red  Sea. 

The  bed  of  the  ocean,  though  diversified  like 
the  surface  of  the  land,  contains  fewer  irregulari- 
ties. Numerous  soundings  show  that  it  extends, 
for  immense  distances,  in  long  undulations  and 
slopes.  Its  plateaus  and  plains,  therefore,  are  of 
great  size,  compared  with  those  of  the  continents. 
Submerged  mountain  ranges  occur  mainly  along 
the  shores,  and  belong,  properly,  to  the  continental 
systems  of  elevations. 

94.  In  the  absence  of  soundings,  ocean  depth  has 
been  calculated  from  the  velocity  of  the  tide-wave 
and  earthquake  waves  crossing  it,  which  depends 
upon  the  depth  of  the  basin  in  which  the  waves 
move. 

95.  Observations  thus  far  made  justify  the  con- 


344        THE  NORMAL  QUESTION  BOOK. 

elusion  that  the  greatest  depths  of  the  sea  are  from 
25,000  to  30,000  feet,  about  equivalent  to  the  great- 
est heights  upon  the  continents. 

96.  Waves  are  ridges  of  water,  produced  by  the 
friction  of  the  winds  on  the  surface.     The  stronger 
the  wind,  the   higher  the  waves  rise,  the  farther 
they  are  apart,  and  the  deeper  the  trough  between 
them. 

97.  The  advance  of  the  wave  is  the  communica- 
tion of  the  wave  movement  to  successive  portions 
of  the  sea;  and  not,  to  any  considerable  extent,  ex- 
cept in  shallows.,  an  onward  movement  of  the  water 
itself. 

98.  When  waves,  advancing  towards  the  shore 
reach  the  shallows,  the  motion  is  retarded  at  the 
bottom  by  friction ;  and  the  top,  moving  on  with- 
out support,  curls  over  and  breaks  in  foam  upon 
the  beach ;  or  in  very  shallow  seas,  it  may  break 
at  a  considerable  distance  from  the  shore. 

99.  Tides  are  the  periodical  risings  and  fallings 
of  the  water,  caused  by  the  attraction  of  the  sun 
and  moon.     The  alternate  risings  and  fallings  suc- 
ceed each  other  with  great  regularity,  and  consume 
about  six  hours  each.     Unlike  waves,  tides  affect 
the  waters  of  the  ocean  to  great  depths. 

100.  The  rising  of  the  water  is  called  flood  tide; 
the  falling,  ebb  tide. 

101.  Tides  are  produced  by  the  attraction  of  the 
moon  and  sun, — principally  that  of  the  former, — 
acting  with  different  degrees  or  force  of  different 

arts  of  the  earth. 


PHYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY.  345 

102.  The  moon  attracts  both  the  land  and  the 
sea;  but  the  particles  of  the  latter  being  free  to 
move,  the  waters  are  drawn  towards  the  attracting 
body;  and  where  its  influence  is   most  powerful, 
are  lifted  up  above  the  normal  curve  of  the  surface 
of  the  sea.     Thus  is  formed  a  vast  swell,  or  tide 
wave,   upon   the   hemisphere   turned  towards    the 
moon. 

103.  When  the  sun  and  moon  act  together,  on 
the  same  hemisphere  of  the  earth,  the  tidal  wave 
is  higher  than  usual.     The   flood  tides  are   then 
highest,  and  the  ebb  tides  lowest.     These  are  called 
spring  tides.    They  occur  twice  during  every  revo- 
lution of  the  moon — once  at  full,  and  once  at  new 
moon.     When  the  sun  and  moon  are  90°  apart,  or 
in  quadrature,  each  produces  a  tide  on  the  portion 
of  the  earth  directly  under  it,  diminishing  some- 
what that  produced  by  the  other  body.     High  tide 
then  occurs  under  the  moon,  while  the  high  tide 
caused  by  the  sun  becomes,  by  comparison,  a  low 
tide.     Such  tides  are  called  neap  tides. 

104.  The  height  of  the  tide  depends  on  local  cir- 
cumstances.    In    the   midst   of  the   Pacific,  it  is 
scarcely  more  than  two  feet,  which  may  be  consid- 
ered its  normal  level.     But  when  dashing  against 
the  land,  or  forced  into  deep  gulfs  and  estuaries^ 
the  accumulating  tide   waters  sometimes  reach  a 
great  height. 

105.  Differences  in  level,  produced  by  high  tides., 
cause  currents  which  vary  in  force  and  direction 
with  the  condition  of  the  tide,  producing  in  some 
cases,  dangerous   whirlpools.     The   famous   msel- 


346        THE  NORMAL  QUESTION  BOOK. 

strom,  off  the  coast  of  Norway,  is  but  a  tidal  cur- 
rent. Such  is  also  the  famous  whirlpool  of  Charyb- 
dis,  in  the  Strait  of  Messina,  and  many  others  of 
less  note. 

106.  The  ocean  currents  are  vast  rivers  in  the 
sea,  which  move  on  steadily  through  water  com- 
paratively at  rest,  and  are  often  different  from  the 
latter  in  color  and  temperature.     Some  are  hun- 
dreds of  miles  broad,  thousands  of  feet  deep,  and 
have  a  course  embracing  the  larger  part  of  the 
ocean  in  which  they  move. 

107.  The  main  causes  of  these  vast  movements 
in  the  ocean  are  found  in  the  winds,  the  excessive 
evaporation  within  the  tropics  which  tends  to  lower 
the  level  of  the  water  there,  and  the  differing  tem- 
peratures of  polar  and   equatorial    regions.     The 
cold  waters  of  the  higher  latitudes,  being  heavier, 
tend  constantly  to  flow  into  the  warmer  waters  of 
the  equatorial  seas;  and  the  latter,  being  displaced 
by  the  former,  flow  away  as  surface  currents  to- 
wards the  poles. 

108.  Polar,  equatorial,  and  return  currents. 

109.  The  polar  and  return  currents,  were  they 
acted  upon  by  no  external  force,  would  move  in  the 
line  of  the  meridians,  taking  the  shortest  course 
between   the   poles   and   the   equator.     Both  are, 
however,  deflected  from  this  course  by  the  unceasing 
action  of  the  earth's  rotation, — the  polar  currents, 
as  they  advance,  tending  more  and  more  towards 
the  west,  and  the  return  currents  towards  the  east ; 
and  their  directions  are  still  farther  modified  by  the 
forms  of  the  basins  of  the  several  oceans,  and  the 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  347 

influence  of  the  prevailing  winds  in  the  different 
zones. 

110.  In  the  economy  of  the  globe,  the  atmos- 
phere is  of  the  greatest  importance.     It  supplies 
animals  and  plants  with  air,  retains  and  modifies 
the  solar  heat,  and  carries  moisture  over  the  surface 
of  the  land,  where  it  descends  as  rain  or  snow. 
Without  the  atmosphere  the  earth  would  be  a  bar- 
ren and  lifeless  waste. 

111.  The  atmosphere  is  a  mechanical  mixture  of 
oxygen  and  nitrogen,  in  the  proportion  by  volume, 
of  21  parts  of  the  former  to  79  of  the  latter;  with 
a  very  small  quantity  of  carbonic  acid,  and  more  or 
less  of  watery  vapor  held  in  suspension. 

112.  Calculations  based  upon  the  diminution  of 
pressure  with  the  height,  estimate  it  at  from  45  to 
50  miles;  others,  based  on  the  duration  of  twilight, 
at  distances  varying  from  35  to  200  miles. 

113.  It  will  be  seen  that  one-half  of  the  entire  at- 
mosphere,   by   weight,   is    condensed    within    3f 
miles — about   18,000   feet — of  the  sea   level;   and 
fully  two-thirds  are  below  the  level  of  the  summit 
of  the  highest  mountains.     This  fact  has  an  im- 
portant bearing,  both  on  the  influence  of  moun- 
tains in  directing  or  modifying  the  course  of  the 
winds,  and  on  the  general  climatic  phenomena  of 
the  globe, 

114.  The  physical  agencies  acting  through  the 
atmosphere  upon  organic  life,  constitute  climate,  of 


348         THE  NORMAL  QUESTION  BOOK. 

which  heat  and  moisture  are  the  essential  elements, 
the  winds  being  the  medium  of  circulation. 

115.  The  general  climatic  conditions  belonging 
to  a  region,  and  depending  upon  its  latitude,  con- 
stitute its  astronomical  climate. 

116.  The  climate  belonging  to  a  place,  by  its  lati- 
tude, is  usually  modified,  to  a  greater  or  less  ex- 
tent, by  secondary  physical  agencies — among  which 
are  the  general  atmospheric  and  marine  currents, 
the  differing  power  of  land  and  water  to  absorb 
and  radiate  heat,  and  the  altitude  of  the  surface. 
The  astronomical  climate  of  a  region  thus  modified, 
is  its  real  or  physical  climate. 

117.  The  amount  of  heat  produced  by  the  sun 
upon  the  earth's  surface,  is  greatest  near  the  equa- 
tor, and  diminishes  gradually  towards  the  poles. 

118.  (1)  In  the  Equatorial  regions  the  sun's  rays 
are  perpendicular  to  the  surface  of  the  sphere,  and 
there  produce  their  maximum  effect;  but,  on  ac- 
count of  the  curved  outline  of  the  globe,  they  fall 
more  and  more  obliquely  with  increasing  latitude, 
and  the  intensity  of  action  diminishes  proportion- 
ately.    At  the  poles  they  are  tangent  to  the  sur- 
face, and  their  effect  is  zero. 

(2)  The  area   on  which  a  given  amount  of 
heating  power  is  expended  is  least  at  tbe  Equator, 
consequently  the  resulting  heat  is  greatest. 

(3)  The  absorption   of   heat  by  the  atmos- 
phere as  the  sun's  rays  pass  through  it,  is  least 
wbere   they  fall  perpendicularly — that   is,  in   the 


PHYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY.  349 

Equatorial  regions,  and  increases,  with  their  in- 
creasing obliquity,  towards  the  poles. 

119.  In  consequence   of   the  inclination  of  the 
nxis,  the  declination  of  the  sun,  or  its  angular  dis- 
tance from  the  Equator,  varies  with  the  advance  of 
the  earth  in  its  orbit,  causing  periodical  variations 
in  the  length  of  day  and  night,  and  consequently 
in  temperature. 

120.  The  general  deviations  from  the  astronom- 
ical climate  occur  chiefly  in  the  middle  latitudes. 

121.  Humboldt  devised  a  series  of  lines  known 
as  isothermals,  or  lines  of  equal  average  temperature, 
in  order  to  illustrate  the  actual  distribution  of  heat, 
irrespective  of  latitude.     Each  line  connects  places 
having  the  same  mean  temperature,  either  of  the 
year,  a  season,  or  any  one  month.     Annual  isother- 
mals  show  the  average   temperature  belonging  to 
the   places  which  they  connect;  the  monthly  and 
season  isothermals   show   the   distribution   of  heat 
throughout  the  year. 

122.  The  extreme  deviations  occur  on  the  coasts 
of  the  north  Atlantic,  western  Europe  being  very 
much  warmer  than  eastern  America  in  correspond- 
ing latitudes. 

123.  In  general  the  climate  of  the  oceans  is  char- 
acterized by  uniformity,  the  difference  between  the 
summer  and  the  winter  temperature  being  compar- 
atively slight.     The  continental   climate,   on   the 
contrary,  is  characterized  by  sudden  changes,  and 
extremes,  the  difference  between  the  summer  and 
the  winter  temperature,  in  middle  and  high  lati- 
tudes, being  excessive. 


350        THE  NORMAL  QUESTION  BOOK. 

124.  Winds  are  masses  of  air  in  motion.     They 
somewhat  resemble  currents  in  the  ocean,  and  re- 
sult from  the  same  causes,  viz :  the  disturbance  in 
the  equilibrium  of  the  atmosphere  by  heat,  and  by 
the  rotation  of  the  earth. 

125.  As  constant,  or  those  which  blow  contin- 
ually in  one  direction,  as  the  Trade- winds;  peri- 
odical, or  those  which  blow  at  certain  periods  only, 
as  the  Monsoons,  Land  and  Sea  Breezes ;  and  varia- 
ble, or  those  which  occur  at  irregular  intervals. 

126.  The  law  of  atmospheric  circulation   gives 
rise  to  three  distinctly  marked  wind  zones,  on  each 
side  of  the  equator,  namely  : 

(1)  The  zone  of  constant  winds,  extending  to 
latitude  25°  or  30°. 

(2)  The  zone  of  variable  winds,  with  alternate 
polar  and  equatorial  currents  dominating,  extend- 
ing thence  to  latitude  60°,  or  near  the  polar  circles; 
and 

(3)  The  zone  of  prevailing,  though  not  con- 
stant, polar  winds. 

127.  The  boundary  between  the  north-east  and 
south-east   trades,  is   formed   by  the  zone  of  the 
ascending  current,  from  4°  to  6°  in  breadth,  adja- 
jcent  to  the  thermal  equator.     The  mean  position 
of  this  zone  is  in  the  Atlantic,  between  3°  and  9° 
north  latitude;  in  the  Pacific,  between  4°  and  8° 
north.     In  the  continents  it  is  usually  found  be- 
tween 3°  south,  and  4°  north  latitude.     Here  the 
ascending  current  overpowers  the  horizontal ;  and, 
as  the  upward  motion  is  not  perceptible  to  the  ob- 


PHYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY.  351 

server,  the  atmosphere  seems  to  be  in  a  state  of 
rest;  hence  this  belt  is  designated  the  Zone  of 
Equatorial  Calms. 

128.  The  trade-winds,  so  called  from  their  influ- 
ence on  the  trade  of  all  maritime  nations. 

129.  The  rotation  of  the  earth  on  its  axis  gives 
the  lower  currents  an  easterly,  and  the  upper  cur- 
rents a  westerly  direction. 

130.  Monsoons,  and  land  and  sea  breezes.     The 
most  remarkable  variable   winds   are  whirlwinds 
and  hurricanes,  typhoons,  or  cyclones. 

131.  The  quantity  of  moisture  in  the  air  depends 
on  its  temperature,  and  its  vicinity  to  the  sea.    The 
amount  of  precipitation  regularly  decreases  as  we 
pass  from  the  equator  to  the  poles,  and  from  the 
coasts  of  the  continents  towards  the  interior. 

132.  Clouds  or  fogs  result  whenever  two  bodies 
of  air  of  different  temperatures  are  mingled,  espe- 
cially if,  as  is  generally  the  case,  the  warmer  of  the 
two  is  the  moister. 

133.  Dew  is  the  moisture  collected  during  the 
night,  in  the  form  of  small  drops  of  water,  on  the 
surface  of  plants  and  other  bodies.    Frost  is  frozen 
dew.     Snow  is  frozen  moisture,  produced  in  the 
same  manner  as  rain.     It  can  only  fall  in  regions 
where  the  temperature  of  the  air  is  at  or  below  the 
freezing  point.     Hail  is  frozen  rain. 

134.  The  rainless  regions  of  the  old,  as  well  ae 


852  THE   NORMAL   QUESTION   BOOK. 

Che  new  world,  lie  almost  entirely  within  the  zones 
of  the  trade-winds. 

There  are  certain  regions  of  the  globe,  esti- 
mated in  all  at  five  and  a  half  millions  of  square 
miles,  in  which  rain  never  falls.  This  is,  for  the 
most  part,  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  winds  are  de- 
prived of  their  moisture  before  reaching  these  dis- 
tricts, either  by  encountering  some  mountain  chain 
or  by  blowing  over  extensive  arid  tracts. 

135.  The  most  remarkable  for  violence,  and  for 
the  regularity  of  their  course,  are  the  hurricanes 
of  the  West  Indies  and  of  Mauritius  in  the  Indian 
Ocean,  the  typhoons  of  the  South  China  Sea,  and 
the  cyclones  of  the  Gulf  of  Bengal. 

136.  Glaciers   are   immense   masses   of  ice  and 
enow,  which  move  with  extreme  slowness  down 
the  higher  mountain  valleys  or  slopes.     Their  up- 
per parts  are  formed  of  soft  snow ;  their  lower  por- 
tions of  clear,  hard  ice. 

137.  The  weight  of  the  huge  snow  fields,  which 
form  above  the  snow  line,  presses  the  mass  slowly 
down  the  slopes.     The  pressure,  due  to  the  weight 
of  the  superincumbent  layers,  but  especially  that 
which  is  produced  when  the  mass  is  forced  through 
&  contraction  in  the  valley,  squeezes  out  the  coa- 

air,  to  which  snow,  in  great  part,  owes  its 
color,  and  the  lower  part  of  the  glacier  thus 
Hcomes  changed  into  a  compact  mass  of  pure  ice. 
alternate  thawing  and  freezi^-  to  which 


PHYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY.  353 

mass  is  subjected  below  the  snow  line,  also  con- 
tributes to  the  change  from  snow  to  ice. 

138.  The  best   known,   and  probably   most  re- 
markable, glacier  region  is  that  of  the  high  Alps, 
in  the  heart  of  which  are  Mount  Blanc,  Monte 
Rosa,  and  the  Bernese  Alps. 

139.  When  they  have  deserted  their  former  val- 
leys, evidences  of  their  previous  existence  are  to  be 
found  in  the  long  lines  of  unstratified  rocks  and 
mud  left  by  their  moraines  in  their  boulders,  and 
especially  in  the  deep  grooves,  or  scratches,  cut  in 
the  bottom  or  sides  of  the  valleys  by  imbedded 
rocks.     These  scratches  are  parallel,  and  show  the 
direction  of  the  motion. 

140.  The  lower  limit  of  perpetual  snow,  called 
the  snow  line,  is  found  within  the  tropics,  about 
three  miles  above  the  sea  level.     In  temperate  lat- 
itudes it  occurs. at  the  height  of  a  little  less  than 
two  miles;  and  at  the  northern  limit  of  the  conti- 
nents, it  is  about  half  a  mile  above  the  level  of  the 
sea,  or  perhaps  even  less  than  this. 

141.  Lightning  results  when  the  electricity  of  a 
cloud  discharges  to  the  earth    or  a   neighboring 
cloud.     The  discharge  is  due  to  the  union  of  the 
positive  and  negative  electricities  of  the  cloud  and 
neighboring  object,  and  is   attended  by   a  vivid 
ppark,  called  lightning. 


23 


354        THE  NORMAL  QUESTION  BOOK. 

Thunder  is  caused  by  the  violent  displacement 
of  the  air,  produced  by  the  passage  of  the  light- 
ning and  its  rush  back  again  into  the  partial 
vacuum  created. 

142.  St.  Elmo's  fire  and  the  Aurora  Borealis  and 
Aurora  Australis. 

143.  The  plants  of  any  section  of  country  taken 
together  are  called  its  flora. 

144.  The  flora  of  different   parts   of  the  earth 
differ  widely,  by   reason  of   differences   in   heat, 
moisture,  light,  slope  and  soil,  particularly  by  the 
first  two. 

145.  The  influence  of  heat  and  moisture  are  no- 
ticed as  we  pass  from  the  equator  to  the  poles,  or 
from  the  base  of  a  tropical  mountain  to  the  summit, 
Thus  arises  a  horizontal  and  vertical  distribution 
of  vegetation. 

146.  The   greatest   luxuriance  of   vegetation  is 
found  in  the  equatorial  regions,  where  heat  and 
moisture  are  most  abundant. 

147.  The  observer,  passing  from  the  base  to  the 
summit  of  high  mountains,  in  any  latitude,  finds 
variations  in  the  character  of  the  plants  similar  to, 
though  not  identical  with,  those  observed  in  ad- 
vancing to  higher  latitudes. 

148.  The  animals  found  in  any  region  of  country 
are  called  its  fauna. 

149.  As  a  rule,  the  luxuriance  and  diversity  of 
animal  life  decrease  as  we  pass  from  the  equator  to 
the  poles.     A  similar  decrease  is  noticed  in  passing 


PHYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY.  355 

from  the  coasts  of  the  continents  towards  the  in- 
terior. 

150.  In  marine  animal  life,  the  law  of  distribu- 
tion is  reversed,  both  the  number  and  size  of  the 
species  increasing  from  the  equator  towards  the 
poles.     This  is  probably  due  to  the  more  equable 
temperature  of  the  ocean  in  high  latitudes. 

151.  Large  bodies  of  water,  deserts,  or  mountain 
ranges,  mark  the  boundaries  of  regions  of  animals 
as  well  as  of  plants ;  but  the  influence  of  tempera- 
ture is  so  important  that  even  when  these  natural 
barriers  are  wanting,  the  horizontal  range  of  ani- 
mals is  sharply  marked  by  isothermal  lines. 

152.  Man,  and  his  faithful  friend,  the  dog,  form 
an  exception  to  most  other  animals  in  this  respect. 

153.  The  distribution  of  heat,  moisture  and  veg- 
etation forms  the  true  basis  for  the  distribution  of 
animal  life. 

154.  A  careful  study  of  the  map  of  the  distribu- 
tion of  animal  life,  will  show  that  each  continent 
possesses  a  fauna  peculiar  to  itself.     This  arises 
generally  from  some  clearly  traceable  peculiarity 
in  the  distribution  of  the  heat  and  moisture,  or  in 
the  nature  of  the  vegetation. 

155.  (1)  A  comparison  of  the  different  tribes  and 
races  of  men,  reveals  the  fact  of  a  gradual  modifi- 
cation of  types,  on  every  side  of  the  central  or 
highest  race,  until,  by  insensible  degrees,  the  lowest 
and  most  degraded  forms  of  humanity  are  reached 


356        THE  NORMAL  QUESTION  BOOK. 

(2)  Iii  the  central  race, — among  the  individ- 
uals of  which  there  is  greater  diversity  in  form, 
features,  temperament  and  mental  characteristics, 
than  in  any  other, — there  are  persons  of  pure  blood 
who  show,  in  a  less  degree,  almost  every  distin- 
guishing feature  of  each  of  the  lower  races. 

(3)  Since   the  earlier  myths  and  legends  of 
nearly  all  nations  resemble  each  other,  it  is  fair  to 
infer  that  their  remote  ancestors  originally  dwelt 
together.     The  strongest  proof  of  unity,  however, 
is  found  in  the  very  close  resemblance  in  the  lan- 
guages of  many  widely  separated  races. 

156.  The  Caucasian,  the  Mongolian,  and  the  Ne- 
gro. 

157.  The  Malay,  or  brown  race;  the  Australian ; 
and  the  American  or  copper-colored.     They  are  re- 
garded as  modifications  of  the  Mongolian  Race. 

158.  The  ever- varying  external  conditions. 

159.  The  law  of  perfection  of  type,  in  man,  forms 
an  exception  to  that  observed  in  the  lower  orders 
of  creation.      The  human  family   appears   in   its 
highest  physical  perfection,  not  within  the  tropics, 
but  in  the  temperate  zone,  in  Western  Asia,  the 
geographical  center  of  the  Old  World.     The  type 
degenerates  gradually  with  increasing  distance,  in 
all  directions  from  this  geographical  center;  until, 
in  the  remotest  regions  of  the  globe,  are  ^ound  the 


PHYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY.  85*7 

ugliest,  and  most  deformed  specimens  of  the  human 
family. 

160.  The  white  race  seems  to  be  the  normal  race 
from  which  the  others  have  gradually  deviated. 


358        THE  NORMAL  QUESTION  BOOK. 


QUESTIONS  ON  CIVIL  GOVERNMENT. 


1.  Define  government. 

2.  What  is  the  necessity  of  government? 

3.  Name  and  define  the  kinds  of  government. 

4.  What  kind  of  government  existed  in  the 
American  colonies  prior  to  the  Revolution? 

5.  Define  these  different  forms  of  government 

6.  What  are  laws  ? 

7.  What  is  a  state  ? 

8.  Define  civil  government. 

9.  What  is  a  constitution  ? 

10.  When  did  the  present  constitution  of  the 
United  States  go  into  operation  ? 

11.  What  is  the  introductory  paragraph  of  the 
constitution  called? 

12.  Repeat  the  preamble. 

13.  What  is  the  object  of  the  preamble? 

14.  What  were  the  purposes  for  which  the  con- 
Btitution  was  adopted  ? 

15.  Into  how  many  departments  is  the  govern- 
ment of  the  United  States  divided? 

16.  Define  these  three  departments. 

17.  To  what  does  article  I.  of  the  constitution 
relate? 


CIVIL   GOVERNMENT.  359 

18.  Give  section  1  of  article  I. 

19.  "What  advantage  is  there  in  dividing  the  leg- 
islative body  into  two  branches  ? 

20.  How  often  are  the  members  of  the  House  of 
Representatives  chosen  ? 

21.  By  whom  are  they  chosen  ? 

22.  Why  is  a  comparatively  short  term  of  service 
fixed  for  the  House  of  Representatives? 

23.  How  old  must  a  Representative  be? 

24.  What  other  qualifications  are  necessary  ? 

25.  In  what  manner  are  representatives  and  di- 
rect taxes  apportioned  among  the  several  States  ? 

26.  Repeat  that  part  of  the  Apportionment  clause 
which  limits  the  number  of  representatives. 

27.  How  are  the  vacancies  in  the  representation 
from  any  State  to  be  filled? 

28.  How  are  the  Speaker  and  other  officers  of 
the  House  chosen? 

29.  What  important  power  is  exercised  by  the 
House? 

30.  What  is  the  power  of  impeachment? 

31.  Are  impeachments  tried  by  the  House? 

32.  Of  how  many  members  is  the  Senate  com- 
posed? 

33.  How  are  the  Senators  chosen  ? 

34.  How  do  they  differ  in  this  respect  from  the 
representatives? 

35.  For  how  long  are  the  Senators  chosen? 

36.  How  do  they  differ  in  this  respect  from  the 
representatives  ? 

37.  Why  is  a  comparatively  long  term  of  service 
fixed  for  the  senators  ? 


360         THE  NORMAL  QUESTION  BOOK. 

38.  Repeat  that  part  of  the  constitution  which 
relates  to  the  arrangement  of  senators  into  classes. 

39.  How  are  vacancies  in  the  Senate  filled? 

40.  If  the  vacancies  happen  during  the  recess  of 
the  Legislature   of  the  state,  how  shall  they  be 
filled? 

41.  "What  are  the  qualifications  of  the  senators? 

42.  Who  is  constituted  the  presiding  officer  of 
the  Senate? 

43.  When  is  he  entitled  to  vote? 

44.  How   are   the   other  officers  of  the   Senate 
chosen? 

45.  Who  shall  preside  in  the  Senate  on  the  trial 
of  the  President  of  the  United  States? 

46.  What  is  necessary  in  order  to  convict  a  per- 
son on  impeachment? 

47.  How  is  the  judgment,  in  cases  of  impeach- 
ment, limited? 

48.  Are  those  convicted  on  impeachment  liable 
to  no  other  punishment? 

49.  In  what  particulars  shall  the  legislature  of 
each  state  regulate   the  election  of  members  of 
Congress? 

50.  What  power  may  Congress  exercise  in  the 
matter  ? 

51.  How  often  shall  Congress  assemble? 

52.  What  day  is  fixed  for  the  meeting  of  Con- 
gress ? 

53.  Who  are  to  judge  of  the  right  of  any  one  to 
a  seat  in  Congress? 

54.  What  number  of  each  house  of  Congress  is 
necessary  to  constitute  a  quorum  ? 


CIVIL   GOVERNMENT.  361 

55.  Who  determines  the  rules  of  proceeding  in 
Congress? 

56.  What  means  has  each  house  for  enforcing  its 
rules? 

57.  How  is  the  publicity  of  the  proceedings  of 
Congress  secured  ? 

58.  How  is  the  responsibility  of  individual  mem- 
bers secured? 

59.  Repeat  the  clause  which  relates  to  revenue 
bills. 

60.  After  a  bill  has  passed  both  Houses  of  Con- 
gress, what  must  be  done  with  it? 

61.  What  is  still  necessary  before  it  can  become 
a  law  ? 

62.  What  must  the  President  do  if  he  does  not 
approve  it? 

63.  What  is  the  next  thing  to  be  done  with  it? 

64.  Repeat  that  clause  which  limits  the  time  that 
the  President  may  retain  a  bill. 

65.  What  powers  are  granted  to  Congress  ? 

66.  What  powers  are  denied  to  Congress  ? 

67.  What  powers  are  denied  to  the  States  ? 

68.  In  whom   is  the   executive    power  of   the 
United  States  vested  ? 

69.  For  how  long  a  term  is  the  President  elected? 

70.  What  other  executive  officer  is  chosen  at  the 
same  time  and  for  the  same  period? 

71.  How  are  electors  appointed? 

72.  What  persons  are  disqualified  from  being  ap- 
pointed electors? 

73.  What  is  the  mode  of  choosing  the  President 
and  Vice-President? 


362  THE   NORMAL   QUESTION   BOOK. 

74.  "What  number  of  electoral  votes  is  necessary 
to  an  election  ? 

75.  What  is  to  be  done,  in  case  no  candidate  has 
a  majority  of  the  whole  number  of  votes? 

76.  In  what  manner  shall  the  votes  of  the  House 
be  taken  in  choosing  the  President  ? 

77.  What   number  of  states   is   necessary  to   a 
choice  by  the  House  ? 

78.  Repeat  that  clause  in  the  constitution  which 
defines  the  qualifications  of  the  President. 

79.  When  does  the  office  of  the  President  de- 
yolve  on  the  Vice-President  ? 

80.  What  does  the  constitution  say  in  reference 
to  the  compensation  of  the  president  ? 

81.  What  are  the  words  of  the  oath  administered 
to  the  president  ? 

82.  What  are  the  powers  and  the  duties  of  the 
president? 

83.  Who  are  liable  to  impeachment  ? 

84.  Who  are  meant  by   officers   of  the  United 
States? 

85.  Does  this  include  members  of  Congress  ? 

86.  What  officers  of  the  United  States  are  there 
besides  civil  officers? 

87.  Are  the  officers  of  the  army  and  navy  liable 
to  impeachment  ? 

88.  Who  are  the  persons  chiefly  meant  besides 
the  president  and  vice  president? 

89.  For  what  offenses  are  these  officers  liable  to 
impeachment  ? 

90.  What  is  the  penalty  in  case  of  impeachment? 

91.  Where  is  the  judicial  power  of  the  United 
States  vested? 


CIVIL   GOVERNMENT.  363 

92.  What  are  the  inferior  courts  called? 

93.  In   what  does  treason   against  the  United 
States  consist  ? 

94.  What  is  necessary  in  order  to  convict  a  per- 
son of  treason  ? 

95.  What  provision  is  made  in  regard  to  the  pun- 
ishment of  treason? 

96.  What  has  Congress  declared  to  be  the  pun- 
ishment for  treason  against  the  United  states? 

97.  What  limit  is  placed  to  the  punishment  of 
treason  ? 

98.  What  is  meant  by  an  attainder  of  treason? 

99.  What  is  meant  by  corruption  of  blood? 
100.  What  shall  the  United  States  guarantee  to 

every  state  in  this  Union  ? 


364        THE  NORMAL  QUESTION  BOOK. 


ANSWERS  TO  QUESTIONS  ON  CIVIL  GOV- 
ERNMENT. 


1.  The  act  of  governing;   the  exercise  of   au- 
thority; the  administration  of  laws;   control;  di- 
rection; restraint;  regulation;  as,  civil,  church,  or 
family  government. 

2.  Governments  are  necessary  evils.     Their  ne- 
cessity arises  out  of  the  selfishness  and  stupidity 
of  mankind. 

3.  Governments  are  of  different  kinds:  Despot- 
ism, where  the  will  of  one  man  is  the  law ;  oligarch- 
ies, where  a  few  make  the  laws  for  those  subordi- 
nate to  them;    and  free  or  popular  governments, 
where  the  laws  are  made  by  the  people,  or  rather 
by  persons  they  select  for  that  purpose. 

4.  There  were  originally  three  different  forms 
of  government  in  the  colonies,  namely,  the  charter,- 
the  proprietary,  and  the  royal  governments. 

5.  The  charter  governments  were  composed  of 
a  governor,  deputy  governor,  and  assistants  elected 
by  the  people.     In  the   proprietary  governments, 


CIVIL   GOVERNMENT.  365 

the  power  of  appointing  officers  and  making  laws 
rested  in  the  proprietors,  by  the  advice  and  consent 
generally  of  the  freemen.  In  the  royal  govern- 
ments the  governor  and  council  were  appointed  by 
the  crown,  and  the  people  elected  representatives 
to  the  colonial  legislature. 

6.  Laws  are  expressions  of  the  controlling  will, 
which  become  rules  of  action  for  the  governed. 

7.  A  state  is  a  community  of  persons  living 
within  certain  limits  of  territory,  under  a  perma- 
nent organization,  which  aims  to  secure  the  preva^ 
lence  of  justice  by  self  imposed  laws. 

8.  Civil  government  is  control  by  law,  exercised 
by  a  state  over  its  members. 

9.  The  principles   or  fundamental  laws  which 
govern  a  state  or  other  organized  body  of  men,  and 
are  embodied  in  written  documents,  or  implied  in 
the  institutions  and  usages  of  the  country  or  so- 
ciety ;  organic  law. 

10.  In  September,  1788. 

11.  The  preamble. 

12.  "  We,  the  people  of  the  United  States,  in  or- 
der to  form  a  more  perfect  union,  establish  justice, 
insure  domestic  tranquility,  provide  for  the  com- 
mon defence,  promote  the  general  welfare,  and  se- 
cure the  blessings  of  liberty  to  ourselves  and  our 
posterity,  do  ordain  and  establish  this  Constitution 
for  the  United  States  of  America." 

13.  The  object  of  the  preamble  is  to  set  forth  the 
purposes  for  which  the  Constitution  was  adopted. 

14.  1st.     To  form  a  more  perfect  uniotu 
2d.    To  establish  justice. 


366  THE   tfORMAL   QUESTION  BOOK. 

3d.    To  insure  domestic  tranquility. 

4th.  To  provide  for  the  common  defence. 

5th.  To  promote  the  general  welfare. 

6th.  And  to  secure  the  blessings  of  liberty  to 
ourselves  and  our  posterity. 

15.  Into  three:  Legislative,  executive  and  judi- 
cial. 

'  16.  The  legislative  makes  the  laws,  the  execu- 
tive carries  the  laws  into  effect,  and  the  judicial 
interprets  the  laws. 

17.  To  the  legislative  department. 

18.  "All  legislative  powers  herein  granted,  shall 
be  vested  in  a  Congress  of  the  United  States,  which 
shall  consist  of  a  Senate  and  House  of  Representa* 
tives. 

19.  The  two  Houses  of  Congress  act  as  a  check 
upon  each  other. 

20.  Every  second  year. 

21.  By  the  people  of  the  several  states. 

22.  That  they  may  come  more  frequently  and 
more  directly  under  the   supervision  of  popular 
opinion. 

23.  No  person  shall  be   a   representative,  who 
shall  not  have  attained  the  age  of  twenty-five  years. 

24.  He  must  have  been  seven  years  a  citizen  of 
the  United  States,  and  must,  when  elected,  be  as* 
inhabitant  of  that  state  in  which  he  is  chosen. 

25.  According  to  their  respective  numbers. 

26.  "  The  number  of  representatives  shall  not  ex- 
ceed one  for  every  thirty  thousand,  but  each  state 
shall  have  at  least  one  representative." 


CIVIL   GOVERNMENT.  367 

27.  The  executive  of  that  state  shall  issue  writs 
of  election  to  fill  such  vacancies. 

28.  By  the  House  itself. 

29.  The  House  has  the  sole  power  of  impeach- 
ment. 

30.  It  is  the  right  which  the  representatives  have 
to  bring  an  accusation  against  high  officers  of  gov- 
ernment, for  maladministration  of  office. 

31.  No.     They  are  tried  by  the  Senate. 

32.  Of  two  from  each  state,  or  seventy-six  in  all. 

33.  By  the  legislatures  of  the  several  states. 

34.  The  representatives  are  chosen  by  the  people 
of  the  states. 

35.  For  six  years. 

36.  The  representatives  are  chosen  for  only  two 
years. 

37.  That  they  may  serve  as  a  check  upon  the 
sudden  fluctuations  of  popular  opinion,  to  which 
the  other  branch  of  the  legislature  is  liable. 

38.  "Immediately  after  they  shall  be  assembled, 
in  consequence  of  the  first  election,  they  shall  be 
divided,  as  equally  as  may  be,  into  three  classes. 
The  seats  of  the  Senators  of  the  first  class  shall  be 
vacated  at  the  expiration  of  the  second  year;  of 
the  second  class,  at  the  expiration  of  the  fourth 
year;  and  of  the  third  class,  at  the  expiration  of 
the  sixth  year;    so  that  one-third  maybe  chosen 
every  second  year." 

39.  By  the  appointment  of  the  legislature  of  the 
state  in  whose  representation  the  vacancy  may  ex- 
ist. 


368         THE  NORMAL  QUESTION  BOOK. 

40.  The  executive  of  the  state  may  make  tem- 
porary appointments  until  the  next  meeting  of  the 
legislature,  which  shall  then  fill  such  vacancies. 

41.  (a)  Must  be  thirty  years  of   age;  (b)  must 
have  been  a  citizen  of  the  United  States  nine  years ; 
(c)  and  must,  at  the  time  of  his  election,  be  an  in* 
habitant  of  that  state  for  which  he  shall  be  chosen, 

42.  The  Vice-President  of  the  United  States. 

43.  Only  when  the  Senate  is  equally  divided. 

44.  "  The  Senate  shall  choose  their  other  officers, 
and  also  a  president  pro  tempore,  in  the  absence  of 
the  Vice-President,  or  when  he  shall  exercise  the 
office  of  President  of  the  United  States." 

45.  The  Chief  Justice. 

46.  The  concurrence  of  two-thirds  of  the  mem- 
bers present. 

47.  It  shall  not  extend  further  than  to  removal 
from  office,  and  disqualification  to  hold  office  un- 
der the  United  States. 

48.  The  party  convicted   shall,  nevertheless,  be 
liable  and  subject  to  indictment,  trial,  judgment, 
and  punishment,  according  to  law. 

49.  The  time?,  places  and   manner,  of  holding 
elections  for  Senators  and  Representatives,  shall  be 
prescribed  in  each  state  by  the  Legislature  thereof. 

50.  But  the  Congress  may  at  any  time,  by  law, 
make  or  alter  such  regulations,  except  as  to   the 
places  of  choosing  Senators. 

51.  The  Congress  shall  assemble  at  least  once  in 
every  year. 

52.  On   the  first  Monday  in  December,  unless 
they  shall  by  law  appoint  another  day. 

53.  Each  house  shall  be  the  judge  of  the  elec- 


CIVIL   GOVERNMENT.  36& 

tions,  returns,  and  qualifications,  of  its  own  mem- 
bers. 

54.  A  majority. 

55.  Each  house  may  determine  the  rules  of  its 
proceedings. 

56.  Each  house  has  the  power  to  punish  its  mem- 
bers for  disorderly  behavior;  and,  with  the  concur- 
rence of  two-thirds,  expel  a  member. 

57.  By  compelling  each  house  to  keep  a  journal 
of  its  proceedings,  and  to  publish  the  same  from 
time  to  time. 

58.  By  requiring  the  yeas  and  nays  to  be  taken 
on  any  question,  at  the  desire  of  one-fifth  of  the 
members  present. 

59.  "All  bills  for  raising  revenue  shall  originate 
in  the  House  of  Representatives;  but  the  Senate 
may  propose  or  concur  with   amendments,  as  on 
other  bills." 

60.  It  must  be  presented  to  the  president. 

61.  The  president  must  approve  and  sign  it. 

62.  He  shall  return  it,  with  his  objections,  to  that 
House  in  which  it  shall  have  originated,  who  shall 
enter  the  objections  at  large  on  their  journal,  and 
proceed  to  reconsider  it. 

63.  If,  after  such  reconsideration,  two-thirds  of 
that  House  shall  agree  to  pass  the  bill,  it  shall  be 
sent,  together  with  the  objections,   to   the   other 
House,  by  which  it  shall  likewise  be  reconsidered, 
and  it'  approved  by  two-thirds  of  that  House,  it  shall 
become  a  5aw. 

64.  "If  any  bill  shall  not  be  returned  by  the 
president  within  ten  days  (Sundays  excepted)  after 

24 


370         THE  NORMAL  QUESTION  BOOK. 

it  shall  have  been  presented  to  him,  the  same  shall 
be  a  law,  in  like  manner  as  if  he  had  signed  it,  un- 
less the  Congress,  by  their  adjournment,  prevent  its 
return,  in  which  case  it  shall  not  be  a  law." 
65.  Congress  shall  have  power — 

(1)  To  lay  and  collect  taxes,  duties,  imposts, 
and  excises,  to  pay  the  debts  and  provide  for  the 
common  defence  and  general  welfare  of  the  United 
States. 

(2)  To  borrow  money  on  the  credit  of  the 
United  States. 

(3)  To  regulate  commerce  with  foreign   na- 
tions, and  among  the  several  states,  and  with  tne 
Indian  tribes. 

(4)  To  establish  a  uniform  rule  of  naturaliza- 
tion, and  uniform  laws  on  the  subject  of  bankrupt- 
cies, throughout  the  United  States. 

(5)  to  coin  money,  regulate  the  value  thereof, 
and  of  foreign  coin,  and  fix  the  standard  of  weights 
and  measures. 

(6)  To  provide  for  the  punishment  of  coun- 
terfeiting the   securities  and  current  coin  of  the 
United  States. 

(7)  To  establish  post-offices  and  post-roads. 

(8)  To  promote  the  progress  of  science  and 
useful  arts  by  securing,  for  limited  times,  to  authors 
and  inventors  the  exclusive  right  to  their  respective 
writings  and  discoveries. 

(9)  To  constitute  tribunals  inferior  to  the  Su- 
preme Court. 

(10)  To  define  and  punish  piracies  and  felonies 
committed  on  the  high  seas,  and  offenses  against 
the  law  of  nations. 


CIVIL   GOVERNMENT.  371 

(11)  To  declare  war,  grant  letters  of  marque 
and  reprisal,  and  make  rules  concerning  captures 
'on  land  and  water. 

(12)  To  raise  and  support  armies. 

(13)  To  provide  and  maintain  a  navy. 

(14)  To  make  rules  for  the  government  and 
regulation  of  the  land  and  naval  forces. 

(15)  To  provide  for  calling  forth  the  militia  to 
execute  the  laws  of  the  Union,  suppress  insurrec- 
tions, and  repel  invasions. 

(16)  To  provide  for  organizing,  arming,  and 
disciplining  the  militia,  and  for  governing  such 
part  of  them  as  may  be  employed  in  the  service  of 
the  United  States. 

(17)  To  exercise  the  exclusive  legislation  in  all 
cases  whatsoever,  over  such  district  (not  exceeding 
ten  miles  square),  as  may,  by  cession  of  particular 
states,  and  the  acceptance  of  Congress,  become  the 
seat  of  the  government  of  the  United  States,  and 
to  exercise  like  authority  over  all  places,  purchased 
by  the  consent  of  the  legislature  of  the  state  in 
which  the  same  shall  be,  for  the  erection  of  forts, 
magazines,  arsenals,  dockyards,  and  other  needful 
buildings. 

(18)  To  make  all  laws  which  shall  be  necessary 
and  proper  for  carrying  into  execution  the  forego- 
ing powers,  and  all  other  powers  vested  by  this 
constitution  in  the  government  of  the  United  States, 
or  in  any  department  or  officer  thereof. 

66.  Powers  denied  to  the  United  States : 

(1)  The  migration  or  importation  of  such 
persons  as  any  of  the  states  now  existing  shall 
think  proper  to  admit,  shall  not  be  prohibited  by 


372  THE  NORMAL   QUESTION   BOOK. 

the  Congress  prior  to  the  year  one  thousand  eight 
hundred  and  eight;  but  a  tax  or  duty  may  be  im- 
posed on  such  importation  not  exceeding  ten  dol- 
lars. 

(2)  The  privilege  of  the  writ  of  habeas  corpus 
shall  not  be  suspended  unless  when,  in  cases  of  re- 
bellion or  invasion,  the  public  safety  may  require  it. 

(3)  No  bill  of  attainder,  or  ex-post  facto  law 
shall  be  passed, 

(4)  No  capitation  or  other  direct  tax  shall  be 
laid,  unless  in  proportion  to  the  census  or  enumer- 
ation hereinbefore  directed  to  be  taken. 

(5)  No  tax  or  duty  shall  be  laid  on  articles 
exported  from  any  state.     No  preference  shall  be 
given  by  any  regulation  of  commerce  or  revenue, 
to  the  ports  of  one  state  over  those  of  another;  nor 
shall  vessels  bound  to,  or  from,  one  state,  be  obliged 
to  enter,  clear,  or  pay  duties  in  another. 

(6)  No  money  shall  be  drawn  from  the  treas- 
ury, but  in  consequence  of  appropriations  made  by 
law ;  and  a  regular  statement  and  account  of  the 
receipts  and  expenditures  of  all  public  money  shall 
be  published  from  time  to  time. 

(7)  No  title  of  nobility  shall  be  granted  by 
the  United  States ;  and  no  person  holding  any  of- 
fice of  profit  or  trust  under  them  shall,  without  the 
consent  of  the  Congress,  accept  of   any  present, 
emolument,  office,  or  title,  of  any  kind  whatever, 
from  any  king,  prince,  or  foreign  state. 

67.  Powers  denied  to  the  states : 

(1)  No  state  shall  enter  into  any  treaty,  alli- 
ance, or  confederation;  grant  letters  of  marque  and 
reprisal;  coin  money;  emit  bills  of  credit;  make 


UIVIL   GOVERNMENT.  373 

anything  but  gold  and  silver  coin  a  tender  in  pay- 
ment of  debts ;  pass  any  bill  of  attainder,  ex-post 
facto  law,  or  law  impairing  the  obligation  of  con- 
tracts, or  grant  any  title  of  nobility. 

(2)  No  state  shall,  without  the  consent  of  the 
Congress,  lay  any  imposts  or  duties  on  imports  or 
exports,  except  what  may  be  absolutely  necessary 
for  executing  its  inspection  laws. 

(3)  No   state  shall,  without  the  consent  of 
Congress,  lay  any  duty  on  tonnage,  keep  troops  or 
ships   of  war,  in   time  of  peace;  enter  into  any 
agreement  or  compact  with  another  state,  or  with 
a  foreign  power,  or  engage  in  war,  unless  actually 
invaded,  or  in  such  imminent  danger  as  will  not 
admit  of  delay. 

68.  The  executive  power  shall  be  vested  in  a 
Psresi'lent  of  the  United  States. 

69.  For  four  years. 

70.  The  Vice  President. 

71.  Each  state  shall  appoint,  in  such  manner  as 
the  legislature  thereof  may  direct,  a  number  of 
electors,  equal  to  the  whole  number  of  Senators 
and  Representatives,  to  which  the  state  may  be 
entitled  in  the  Congress. 

72.  Senators,  Representatives,  and   all  persons 
holding   any  office  of  trust  or  profit  under  th« 
United  States. 

73.  The  electors  shall  meet  in   their  respective 
states,  and  vote  by  ballot  for  President  and  Vice 
President,  one  of  whom,  at  least,  shall  not  be  an 
inhabitant  of  the  same  state  with  themselves ;  they 
shall  mime  in  their  ballots  the  person  voted  for  as 
President,  and  in  distinct  ballots  the  person  voted 


374         THE  NORMAL  QUESTION  BOOK. 

for  as  Vice  President ;  and  they  shall  make  distinct 
lists  of  all  persons  voted  for  as  President,  and  of  all 
persons  voted  for  as  Vice  President,  and  of  the 
number  of  votes  for  each,  which  lists  they  shall 
sign,  and  certify,  and  transmit,  sealed,  to  the  seat 
of  the  government  of  the  United  States,  directed 
to  the  President  of  the  Senate.  The  President  of 
the  Senate  shall,  in  the  presence  of  the  Senate  and 
House  of  Representatives,  open  all  the  certificates, 
and  the  votes  shall  then  be  counted. 

74.  A  majority  of  the  whole  number. 

75.  The  House  of  Representatives  shall  elect  a 
president. 

76.  By  states ;  the  representation  from  each  state 
having  but  one  vote. 

77.  A  majority  of  all  the  states. 

78.  No  person,  except  a  natural-born  citizen,  or 
a  citizen  of  the  United  States  at  the  time  of  the 
adoption  of  this  constitution,  shall  be  eligible  to  the 
office  of  President;  neither  shall  any  person  be 
eligible  to  that  office  who  shall  not  have  attained 
to  the  age  of  thirty-five  years,  and  been  fourteen 
years  a  resident  within  the  United  States. 

79.  In  case  of  the  removal  of  the  president  from 
office,  or  of  his  death,  resignation,  or  inability  to 
discharge  the  powers  and  duties  of  the  said  office, 
the  same  shall  devolve  on  the  vice  president. 

80.  The  president  shall,  at  stated  times,  receive 
for  his  services,  a  compensation,  which  shall  neither 
be  increased  nor  diminished  during  the  period  for 
which  he  shall  have  been  elected,  and  he  shall  not 
receive  within  that  period,  any  other  emolum  n* 
from  the  United  States,  or  any  of  them. 


CIVIL   GOVERNMENT.  375 

81.  "  I  do  solemnly  swear  (or  affirm),  that  I  will 
faithfully  execute  the  office  of  President   of  the 
United  States,  and  will,  to  the  best  of  my  ability, 
preserve,  protect,  and  defend  the  constitution  of 
the  United  States." 

82.  (1)  The   president   shall    be   commander- in- 
chief  of  the  army  and  navy  of  the  United  States^ 
and  of  the  militia  of  the  several  states,  when  called 
into  the  actual  service  of  the  United  States ;  he  may 
require  the  opinion,  in  writing,  of  the  principal 
officer  in  each  of  the  executive  departments,  upon 
any  subject  relating  to  the  duties  of  their  respec- 
tive offices,  and  he  shall  have  power  to  grant  re- 
prieves and  pardons  for  offenses  against  the  United 
States,  except  in  cases  of  impeachment. 

(2)  He  (the  president)  shall  have  power,  by 
and  with  the  advice  and  consent  of  the  Senate,  to 
make  treaties,  provided  two-thirds  of  the  Senators 
concur;  and  he  shall  nominate,  and  by  and  with 
the  advice  and  consent  of  the  Senate,  shall  appoint 
embassadors,  other  public  ministers,  and  consuls, 
judges  of  the  Supreme  Court,  and  all  other  officers 
of  the  United  States,  whose  appointments  are  not 
herein  otherwise  provided  for,  and  which  shall  be 
established  by  law ;  but  the  Congress  may  by  law 
vest  the  appointment  of  such  inferior  officers  as 
they  think  proper,  in  the  president  alone,  in  the 
courts  of  law,  or  in  the  heads  of  departments. 

(3)  The  president  shall  have  the  power  to 
fill  up  vacancies  that  may  happen,  during  the  recess 
of  the  Senate,  by  granting  commissions,  which  shall 
expire  at  the  end  of  their  next  session. 

(4)  He  shall,  from  time  to  time,  give  to  the 


376        THE  NORMAL  QUESTION  BOOK. 

Congress  information  of  the  state  of  the  Union, 
and  recommend  to  their  consideration  such  meas- 
ures as  he  shall  judge  necessary  and  expedient;  he 
may,  on  extraordinary  occasions,  convene  both 
Houses,  or  either  of  them,  and  in  case  of  disagree- 
ment between  them,  with  respect  to  the  time  of 
adjournment,  he  may  adjourn  them  to  such  time  as 
he  shall  think  proper ;  he  shall  receive  embassadors 
and  other  public  ministers;  he  shall  take  care  that 
the  laws  be  faithfully  executed,  and  shall  commis- 
sion all  the  officers  of  the  United  States. 

83.  The  President,  Vice  President,  and  all  civil 
officers  of  the  United  States. 

84.  Officers  deriving  their  appointments  from  the 
national  government. 

85.  No. 

86.  Officers  of  the  army  and  navy. 

87.  They  are  not. 

88.  Heads  of  departments;  judges   of  the  Su- 
preme Court,  marshals,   collectors,  district   attor- 
neys, etc. 

89.  For  treason,  bribery,  or  other  high  crimes 
and  misdemeanors. 

90.  Removal  from  office,  and  disqualification  to 
hold  office  in  future. 

91.  In  one  Supreme  Court,  and  in  such  inferior 
courts  as  the  Congress  may,  from  time  to  time,  or- 
dain and  establish. 

92.  District  courts  and  circuit  courts. 

93.  Treason  against  the  United  States  shall  con- 
sist only  in  levying  war  against  them,  or  in  adher- 
ing to  their  enemies,  giving  them  aid  and  comfort. 

94.  No  person  shall  be  convicted  of  treason,  un- 


CIVIL   GOVERNMENT.  377 

less  on  the  testimony  of  two  witnesses  to  the  same 
overt  act,  or  on  confession  in  open  court. 

95.  The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  declare  the 
punishment  of  treason. 

96.  Death  hy  hanging. 

97.  No  attainder  of  treason  shall  work  corrup- 
tion of  blood,  or  forfeiture,  except  during  the  life 
of  the  person  attainted. 

98.  Conviction  of  the  crime  of  treason. 

99.  One  whose  blood  is  corrupted  can  not  inherit 
property  from  others,  nor  transmit  an  inheritance 
to  his  children ;  his  blood  ceases  to  have  any  in- 
heritable qualities. 

100.  The  United  States  shall  guarantee  to  every 
state  in  this  Union  a  republican  form  of  govern- 
ment, and  shall  protect  each  of  them  against  inva- 
sion ;  and,  on  application  of  the  legislature,  or  of 
the  executive  (when  the  legislature  can  not  be  con- 
vened), against  domestic  violence. 


378        THE  NORMAL  QUESTION  BOOK, 


QUESTIONS  ON  ENGLISH  LITERATURE. 


1.  Into  what  ten  periods  may  English  literature 
be  divided,  with  reference  to  English  history? 

2.  How  were  letters  and   learning  first  intro- 
duced into  England? 

3.  Why  was  the  country  named  England  ? 

4.  Describe  the  early  minstrels. 

5.  What  was  the  effect  of  the  Danish  invasion 
upon  the  Anglo-Saxon  language  and  literature  ? 

6.  What  is  the  oldest  English  poem? 

7.  Of  what  benefit   was   King  Alfred  to  the 
cause  of  literature  ? 

8.  What  circumstances  led  to  the  Norman  in- 
vasion ? 

9.  Describe  the  Ormulum. 

10.  What  is  the  nature  of  the  writings  of  Sir 
John  Mandeville  ? 

11.  Who  was  "Piers  Plowman?" 

12.  What  great  work  did  Wyckliffe  do? 

13.  Give   a  brief  account  of   Chaucer  and  his 
writings. 

14.  What  effect  did  the  Norman  conquest  have 
upon  literature? 


ENGLISH   LITERATURE.  379 

15.  Who  was  Caxton  ?     Give  an  account  of  his 
literary  work. 

16.  Give  an  outline  of  the  life  and  work  of  Tyn- 
dale. 

17.  Give  a  sketch  of  Sir  Thomas  Moore. 

18.  What  kinds    of   poetical   composition    did 
Wyatt  and  Surrey  introduce  into  England? 

19.  Give  a  brief  account  of  the  age  of  Elizabeth. 

20.  To  what  department  of  composition  did  John 
ftnd  Richard  Hooker  contribute? 

21.  Give  a  brief  account  of  Lord  Bacon  and  his 
writings. 

22.  Give  the  points  of  interest  in  the  life  of  Ed- 
mund Spenser. 

23.  Who   were  the  leading  contemporaries  of 
Spenser? 

24.  What  is  the  style  of  Shakespeare's  writings? 
What  are  his  best  poems? 

25.  What  valuable  contributions  to  literature  did 
Thomas  Fuller  make? 

26.  Give  the  points  of  special  interest  in  the  life 
and  work  of  Jeremy  Taylor. 

27.  Give  a  brief  sketch  of  Milton  and  his  writ- 
ings. 

28.  In  what  special  fields  of  investigation  were 
Locke,  Newton  and  Boyle  interested? 

29.  Give  an  account  of  the  life  and  writings  of 
John  Bunyan. 

30.  Give  a  sketch  of  John  Dryden  and  his  writ- 
ings. 

31.  Give  an  account  of  the  introduction  of  the 
newspaper. 


380  THE  NORMAL   QUESTION  BOOK. 

32.  Who  were  the  principal  writers  of  the  Au- 
gustan Age  ? 

33.  Who  were  the  principal  writers  of  the  Age 
of  the  Three  Georges  ? 

34.  Name  the  leading  English  literarj  oaefi  of 
the  Lake  School. 

35.  Name  the  English  Poets  Laureate. 


ENGLISH   LITERATURE.  381 


ANSWERS  TO  QUESTIONS  ON  ENGLISH  LIT- 
ERATURE. 


L  I.  ANGLO-SAXON  PERIOD.   450-1066.  GEDMON. 
II.  NORMAN  TRANSITION  PERIOD.    1066-1400. 
CHAUCER. 

III.  REFORMATION  AGE.   1400-1558.    TYNDALE. 

IV.  ELIZABETHAN  AGE.    1558-1625.     SPENSER. 
V.  DRAMATIC  AGE  (overlapping).     1585-1645. 

SHAKESPEARE. 

YI.  THE  AGE  OF  THE  PROTECTORATE.     1625- 
1660.    MILTON. 

VII.  THE  RESTORATION  AGE.  1660-1702.  DRY- 
DEN. 

YIII.  THE  AGE  OF  QUEEN  ANNE.      1702-1714. 
POPE. 

IX.  AGE  OF  THE  THREE  GEORGES.  1714-1800. 
COWPER. 

X.  NINETEENTH  CENTURY.      1800 — .   SCOTT  — 
WORDSWORTH. 

2.  The  Teutonic  peoples  had  a  system  of  writ- 
ing in  characters  called  runes,  which  they  claimed 
had  been  taught  them  by  their  god  Odin,  or  "Wo- 
din.  The  Teutons  had  engraved  their  runes  oil 
stones  and  trees.  Besides  these  written  characters, 


382        THE  NORMAL  QUESTION  BOOK. 

all  barbarous  nations  have  their  story-tellers,  who 
tell  the  traditions  of  the  past  and  the  deeds  of  men 
around  them,  and  these  stories  were  handed  down 
till  they  were  finally  written  down  and  became  the 
first  history  or  poem  of  a  nation. 

Pope  Gregory  sent  monks  to  England  to  teach 
Christianity.  They  carried  a  copy  of  the  Old  Tes- 
tament and  other  works  on  parchment.  Thus,  all 
at  once,  upon  the  English  soil  came  the  CHRISTIAN 
RELIGION,  the  HEBREW  LITERATURE,  and  the  WRIT- 
TEN CHARACTERS  of  the  ROMANS — three  great  gifta 
to  the  future  of  our  English  race. 

3.  From  the  Angles,  a  teutonic  race  that  settled 
along  the  shores  of  the  North  Sea,  and  finally  be- 
came the  conquerors  and  holders  of  the  British 
Isles. 

4.  The  Britons   had   their  bards,  who   sang  to 
harps,  songs  of  war  and  praises  of  heroes.     The 
Scandinavians  had  a  sagaman  and  scald;  the  Eng- 
lish their  scop  and  gleeman.     The  chiefs  honored 
these  men  as  princes  honor  poets.     They  had  them 
at  their  feasts;  they  took  them  to  the  field  of  bat- 
tle, and  the  court  of  those  old  rulers  would  not 
have  been  complete  without  these,  its  minstrels. 

5.  The  invasions  of  the  Danes  interrupted  liter- 
ary labor,  and  early  in  the  eleventh  century  the 
Danes  conquered  England,  and  King  Canute  took 
the  throne. 

6.  England's  earliest  extant  writing  is  an  epic 


ENGLISH   LITERATURE.  388 

poem  of  more   than  six  thousand  lines,  entitled 
"  Beowulf." 


7.  The  honored  name  of  King  Alfred  stands  pre- 
eminent among  the  writers  of  prose  in  Old  Eng- 
lish.    No  sooner  had  he  effected  the  deliverance 
of  his  people  from  their  Danish  enemies,  than  he 
eagerly  set  to  work  to  lift  them  out  of  their  bond- 
age of  ignorance.     From  various  quarters  he  in- 
vited men  of  learning  to  his  court.     He  strove  to 
secure  the  higher  education  of  the  clergy.    In  order 
to  diffuse  knowledge,  he  had  the  standard  writings 
on  religion,  morals,  geography,  and  history  trans- 
lated into  the  language  of  the  people.     He  applied 
himself  to  a  careful  course  of  training  in  order  to 
prepare  himself  for  the  work   of  a   writer.     His 
writings  are  pronounced  "  the  purest  specimens  of 
Anglo-Saxon  prose." 

8.  The  vicinity  of  so  remarkable  a  people  (the 
Normans),  early  began  to  produce  an  effect  on  the 
public   mind   of  England.     Before   the   conquest, 
English  princes  received   their  education  in  Nor- 
mandy.    English  sees  and  English  estates  were  be- 
stowed on  Normans.     The  French  of  Normandy 
was  familiarly  spoken  in  the  palace  of  Westmin- 
ster.    The  court  of  Rouen    seems  to  have  been  to 
the  court  of  Edward  the  Confessor  what  the  court 
of  Versailles,  long  afterwards,  was  to  the  court  of 
Charles  the  Second.     The  battle  of  Hastings,  and 
the  events  which  followed  it,  not  only  placed  a 
Duke  of  Normandy  on  the  English  throne,  but  gave 


384         THE  NORMAL  QUESTION  BOOK. 

up  the  whole  population  of  England  to  the  tyranny 
of  the  Norman  race. 

9.  The  Ormulum,  written  by  Orm,  is  supposed 
to  have  been  written  in  the  thirteenth  century. 
One  of  its  editors  describes  it  as  "  a  series  of  hom- 
ilies in  an  imperfect  state,  composed  in  metre,  with- 
out rhyme;  the  subject  of  the  homilies  being  sup- 
plied by  those  portions  of  the  New  Testament 
which  were  read  hi  the  daily  services  of  the 
church."  The  author  himself  says,  "If  any  one 
wants  to  know  why  I  have  done  this  deed,  why  I 
have  turned  into  English  the  Gospel's  holy  teach- 
ing; I  have  done  it  in  order  that  all  young  Chris- 
tian folks  may  depend  upon  that  only,  that  they, 
with  their  whole  mind,  might  follow  aright  the 
Gospel's  holy  teachings  in  thought,  in  word,  in  deed." 

10.  Sir  John  Mandeville  (1300-1372),  published 
his  well-known  volume  of  travels  in  1356.     It  pm« 
fesses  to  be  an  authentic  account  of  what  the  au- 
thor saw  on  his  travels  through  the  most  distant 
countries  of  the  East,  but  is,  in  reality,  a  collection 
of  marvelous  tales,  worthy  only  of  being  classed 
with  the  adventures  of  Baron  Munchausen.     What- 
ever truth  it  may  contain  is  mingled  with  so  much 
falsehood,  that  the  whole  narrative  is  worthless. 
The  book  was  translated  from  Latin  into  French, 
and  from  French  into  English. 

11.  "  Piers  Ploughman  "  wrote  three   works, — • 
"  The  Vision,"  "  The  Creed,"  and  "  The  Complaint 
of  Piers  Plowman."     They  express  the  discontent 
«t"  the   Commons   with   the   course   of  affairs   in 


ENGLISH   LITERATURE.  385 

Church  and  State.  Tradition  assigns  the  author- 
ship to  WILLIAM  LANGLANDE,  and  the  time  is  sup- 
posed to  have  been  1362  to  1399. 

12.  Wyckliffe  (1324-1384)  was  one  of  the  earli- 
est writers  who  addressed  the  common  people  in 
words  familiar  to  the  hearths  and  homes  of  Eng- 
land.    But  his  chief  literary  work  was  "A  Trans- 
lation of  the  Holy  Bible." 

Wyckliffe  was  the  first  eminent  scholar  who 
used  the  English  tongue  in  attacking  the  ecclesi- 
astical system.  He  was  the  forerunner  of  the 
Reformation.  He  struck  the  first  mighty  blow 
against  Roman  Catholic  supremacy  in  England. 

13.  Geoffrey   Chaucer  (1328-1400)   is   our  first 
great  poet — so  incomparably  great  as  to  all  that 
went   before,  that   he   is   distinctively  called   the 
Father  of  English  Poetry.     His  name  would  be 
found  in  any  list  meant  to  include  the  five  greatest 
poets  of  England.    Chaucer's  writings  show  him  to 
have  been  in  sympathy   with  Wyckliffe  and  the 
Lancastrians,  in  their  resistance  to  the  encroach- 
ments of   the    Roman   hierarchy.      His   principal 
work,  "  The  Canterbury  Tales,"  is  believed  to  have 
been  written  late  in  life. 

14.  For  more  than  a  century  after  the  Norman 
Conquest,  English  literature  was  utterly  inert.  That 
event,  so  fatal  to  the  native  aristocracy,  seemed  at 
first  to  have  swept  away  in  common  ruin  the  laws, 
language  and  arts  of  the  English  people,  and  to 

25 


386        THE  NORMAL  QUESTION  BOOK. 

have  blotted  out  England  from  the  muster-roll  of 
the  nations. 

15.  Few  English  names  of  this   (15th)  century 
will  live  so  long  as  that  of  William  Caxton  (1412- 
1491).     To  him  England  owes  her  early  participa- 
tion in  the  benefits  arising  from  the  art  of  printing. 
His  printing  press  was  set  up  at  Westminster,  and 
its  first  work,  the  "  Game  of  Chesse,"  appeared  in 
1474.     He  gave  to   the   world   sixty-four  books, 
many  of  them  translations  from  the  printer's  own 
pen.     To  other  books  he  added  prefaces  of  his  own 
composition,  so  that  he  is  fairly  entitled  to  a  place, 
though  not  a  very  high  one,  among  English  au- 
thors. 

16.  William  Tyndale  (1480-1536),  translated  the 
New  Testament,  and  the  Pentateuch  and  the  His- 
torical Books  of  the   Old   Testament.    His  New 
Testament  first   appeared  in   1525.     The   version 
made  by  Tyndale  was  used  to  a  large  extent  by  all 
subsequent  Protestant  translators ;  it  is  really  the 
basis  of  our  present  version.     There  is  in  our  pres- 
ent version  more  of  Tyndale  than  of  all  the  other 
translators   put  together.      After   translating   the 
New  Testament  he  proceeded  with  a  translation  of 
the  Old  Testament,  and  had  completed  the  larger 
portion  of  it,  when  death  put  an  end  to  his  labors. 
He   also  made,  in   1534,  a  careful  revision  of  his 
New  Testament.    He  was  finally  arrested  and  burnt 
at  the  stake,  in  1536.     His  dying  exclamation  was, 
"Lord,  open  the  King  of  England's  eyes ! " 

17.  Sir  Thomas  More  (1480-1535)  was,  next  to 
Erasmus  and  Cardinal  Wolsey,  the  most  conspicu- 


ENGLISH   LITERATURE.  387 

ous  and  shining  character  in  the  reign  of  Henry 
VIII.  He  was  a  man  of  wonderful  versatility  as 
well  as  force  of  genius,  being  equally  distinguished 
as  a  statesman,  a  man  of  lively  wit,  a  scholar,  and 
a  devout  Christian.  More  wrote  many  works, 
mostly  of  a  controversial  kind.  The  only  work  by 
which  he  is  now  known  is  "  The  Utopia." 

18.  Wyatt's  (1503-1542)  writings   were   princi- 
pally amatory  and  satirical. 

Surrey  (1516-1547)  is  distinguished  for  his  son- 
nets and  songs,  and  especally  by  his  being  the  first 
writer  of  blank  verse  in  English.  He  translated 
the  first  and  fourth  books  of  VirgiPs  ^Eneid. 

19.  The  Elizabethan  Age,  or  the  Golden  Age  of 
Poetry,  includes  the  names  of  more  great  men  than 
any  other  age  of  literature.     Elizabeth  herself  was 
finely  educated,  and  sometimes  wrote  poetry.     In 
this  period  lived  Spenser,  Sir  Philip  Sydney,  Sir 
Walter  Raleigh,  Lord  Bacon,  Shakespeare.  Ben 
Jonson,  and  many  other  eminent  literati. 

20.  John  Knox  (1505-1572)  was  a  great  Scottish 
Reformer.    He  was  a  Catholic  priest,  but  renounced 
Catholicism   and  became  an  earnest  advocate  of 
Protestantism. 

Richard  Hooker  (1553-1600)  was  the  ablest 
advocate  of  the  church  organization  of  England 
that  had  yet  appeared. 

21.  Francis  Bacon — Baron  Verulam  (1561-1626), 
commonly  known  as  Lord  Bacon — was  one  of  the 
greatest  of  modern  philosophers.    Bacon  was  gifted 


888  THE   NORMAL   QUESTION   BOOK. 

by  nature  with  abilities  of  the  highest  order,  and 
he  had  every  advantage  which  education  and  high 
birth  could  bestow  for  giving  his  abilities  develop- 
ment and  exercise.  After  holding  various  high 
offices,  he  was,  in  1620,  made  Viscount  St.  Albans. 
The  same  year  he  also  published  his  greatest  work, 
"The  Novum  Organum."  But  he  fell  from  his 
high  position  by  his  own  meanness.  Though  in 
the  receipt. of  a  princely  revenue  from  the  fees  of 
his  office  and  from  his  professional  services,  he 
added  still  further  to  his  income  by  taking  direct 
bribes  as  a  judge  and  giving  decisions  expressly  for 
money.  He  confessed  his  guilt,  and  was  sentenced 
to  pay  a  fine  of  £40,000,  made  incapable  of  holding 
office,  and  imprisoned  during  the  pleasure  of  the 
king.  This  sentence  was  scarcely  pronounced  be- 
fore it  was  mitigated.  He  was  sent  to  the  Tower, 
but  in  two  days  was  set  at  liberty.  The  fine  was 
soon  after  remitted.  Bacon's  works  have  been 
published  in  seventeen  volumes.  He  wrote  chiefly 
upon  science  and  law.  No  finer  specimens  of  Eng- 
lish prose  are  to  be  found  than  in  Bacon's  Essays. 

22.  Edmund  Spenser  (1553-1599)  is  the  nexl 
great  name  in  English  literature,  after  that  of 
Chaucer.  His  principal  work  "  The  Fairy  Queen,'1 
is  one  of  the  chief  treasures  of  the  language.  Spen- 
ser was  born  in  London,  in  humble  circumstances. 
He  was  educated  at  Cambridge.  In  1579  he  pub- 
lished his  first  volume,  "The  Shepherds'  Calender." 
His  other  works  are,  "The  Ruins  of  Time,"  " The 
Tears  of  the  Muses,"  "Virgil's  Gnat,"  « Mother 
Hubbard's  Tale,"  "  The  Ruins  of  Rome,"  "  The  Fate 


ENGLISH  LITERATURE.  389 

of  the  Butterfly,"   "Dapnaida,"  "  Prothalamion," 
and  four  "  Hymns." 

23.  Sir  Philip  Sidney,  Gabriel  Harvey,  Sir  Wal- 
ter Raleigh,  Thomas  Sackville,  William  Warner, 
Samuel  Daniel,  Michael  Drayton,  Edward  Fairfax, 
Giles  and  Phineas  Fletcher,  George  Herbert,  and 
William  Drumrnond. 

24.  Dramatic.     Hamlet  is  undoubtedly   Shake- 
speare's masterpiece;  Othello  is  his  most  finished 
piece,  and  Twelfth  Night  or  As  You  Like  It,  is 
the  most  genial.     But  the  two  parts  of  Henry  IV., 
and  the  play  of  Henry  V.  form  a  trilogy  that  re- 
veals the  poet  in  his  greatest  vigor  and  flexibility. 

25.  Thomas  Fuller  (1608-1661),  the  ecclesiastical 
historian  of  Great  Britain,  is  about  as  much  known 
for  his  wit  as  for  his  learning.     His  principal  works 
are  the  following :     "  The  Church  History  of  Great 
Britain,  from  the  Birth  of  Christ  to  1648;"  "His- 
tory of  the  Worthies  of  England;"  "The  Holy 
and  the  Profane   State;"  "History  of  the  Holy 
War;"  "Good  Thoughts  in  Bad  Times;"  "Good 
Thoughts  in  Worse  Times;"  "Mixed  Contempla- 
tions in  Better  Times;"  "The  Unfortunate  Politi- 
cian;" "David's  Heinous  Sin  (a  poem),"  etc. 

26.  Jeremy  Taylor,   D.  D.  (1613-1667),    is,  by 
general  consent,  one  of  the  greatest  glories  of  the 
English   people.     He   was  born    and  educated  at 
Cambridge.     In  the  fierce  conflicts  then  going  on, 
Taylor  adhered  to  the  Royalists  and  shared  their 
fortunes.     He  held  offices  under  Charles  I.,  but  on 
the  downfall  of  the  Royalists  he  lost  his  position, 


390         THE  NORMAL  QUESTION  BOOK. 

and  was  frequently  imprisoned.  During  the  Pro- 
tectorate he  kept  school  in  Wales,  and  officiated 
as  chaplain  to  the  Earl  of  Carberry.  After  the 
Restoration  he  became  a  member  of  the  Privy 
Council  of  Ireland,  and  Vice-Chancellor  of  the 
University  of  Dublin.  Taylor  is  the  Spensei  of 
theological  literature.  It  seems  a  pity  that  Taylor 
could  not  have  been  born  half  a  century  earliers 
and  formed,  with  Spenser  and  Sidney,  a  part  of  the 
retinue  of  the  stately  Elizabeth.  His  works  of 
most  importance  are  pleas  for  religious  toleration. 
While  in  his  seclusion  in  Wales  he  wrote  "  Holy 
Living,"  "  Holy  Dying/'  "  Liberty  of  Prophesying," 
"A  Life  of  Christ,"  and  the  "Golden  Grove." 

27.  John  Milton,  the  poet,  t*he  statesman,  the 
philosopher,  the  glory  of  English  literature,  the 
champion  and  the  martyr  of  English  liberty. — J/a- 
caulay. 

The  old  blind  poet  hath  published  a  tedious 
poem  on  the  Fall  of  Man.  If  the  length  be  not 
considered  as  a  merit  it  hath  no  other. —  Waller. 

The  first  place  among  our  English  poets  is  due 
to  Milton. — Addison. 

There  is  no  force  in  his  reasonings,  no  elo- 
quence in  his  style,  and  no  taste  in  his  composi- 
tions.— Goldsmith. 

Milton  was  born  in  London,  1608,  died  1674. 
His  chief  poem  is  Paradise  Lost.  This  great  poem 
was  two  years  in  finding  a  publisher,  and  the 
amount  received  for  the  copyright  was  only  £28. 
Milton  wrote  several  works  on  divorce,  and  was 
also  a  political  writer  of  note.  He  became  totally 


ENGLISH   LITERATURE.  391 

blind  in  1653.     Many  of  his  best  works  were  writ- 
ten after  he  became  blind. 


28.  John  Locke  (1632-1704),  is  one  of  the  names 
always  quoted  in  speaking  of  the   great  thinkers 
who  have  largely  influenced  the  current  English 
opinion  on  science,  morals,  or  religion. 

Sir  Isaac  Newton  (1642-1727),  -devoted  the 
greater  part  of  his  study  to  philosophical  research. 
He  also  wrote  some  minor  theological  works. 

Hon.  Robert  Boyle  (1627-1691)  was  greatly 
distinguished  as  an  experimental  philosopher  of 
the  school  of  Bacon,  and  as  the  chief  founder  of 
the  Royal  Society. 

29.  John  Bunyan  (1628-1688)  was,  of  all  writers 
of  his  age,  the  greatest  marvel.     With  only  the 
most  limited  opportunities  of    education,  he  pro- 
duced a  work  which  is  one  of  the  greatest  classics, 
not  merely  *of  English  literature,  but  of  all  litera- 
ture, ancient  or  modern.     The  "Iliad"  itself  is  not 
more  clearly  a  work  for  all  time  and  all  men  than 
is  the  "  Pilgrim's  Progress,"  b}7  John  Bunyan,  the 
Bedfordshire   tinker.      Bunyan   was   an    illiterate 
tinker,  and  in  early  life  shockingly  profane.     Be- 
ing brought  under  strong  religious  convictions,  he 
abandoned  his  former  way  of  life  and  became  ever 
afterward  a  most  earnest   and  devoted  Christian. 
Bunyan  wrote  many  works,  the  chief  one,  after 
"  The  Pilgrim's  Progress,"  being  his  "  Holy  War." 

30.  John    Dryden    (1631-1700)    fills    a    larger 
space  in  English  literature  than  any  other  writer 


392  THE  NORMAL   QUESTION   BOOK. 

between  the  age  of  Milton  and  that  of  Pope  and 
Addison. 

"My  conversation  is  slow  and  dull,  my  humor 
saturnine  and  unreserved.  In  short,  I  am  none  of 
those  who  break  jests  in  company  and  make  repar- 
tees." 

Dryden  wrote  dramas,  satires,  polemics,  trans- 
lations, fables  and  odes.  He  was  Poet  Laureate 
from  1670  to  1688. 

31.  Newspapers  were  preceded  in  antiquity  by 
the  Roman  Ada  Diurna,  which  were  daily,  official 
written  reports  of  public  occurrences;  and  in  mod- 
ern Europe  by  periodical  publications  in  manu- 
script. 

Alexander  Andrews  gives  the  following  ac- 
count of  the  origin  of  newspapers : 

"First  we  have  the  written  news  letter  fur- 
nished to  the  wealthy  aristocracy ;  then,  as  the 
craving  for  information  spread,  the  ballad  of  news 
sung  or  recited ;  then  the  news  pamphlet  more 
prosaically  arranged ;  then  the  periodical  sheet  of 
news,  and  lastly  the  newspaper." 

The  first  regular  series  of  weekly  newspapers 
hitherto  discovered  was  entitled,  "  The  "Weekly 
Newes  from  Italy,  Germanie,  etc."  (1622).  The 
"  English  Mercury,  of  1588,"  long  regarded  as  the 
first  printed  English  newspaper,  was  proved  a 
forgery  in  1839,  and  again  in  1850,  by  Thomas 
Watts  of  the  British  Museum.  Prominently  con- 
nected with  most  of  the  early  weekly  sheets,  which 
appeared  under  the  name  of  "Weekly  Newes," 
"  Times  News,"  "  Newes,,"  etc.,  was  Nathaniel  But- 


ENGLISH   LITERATURE.  393 

ler,  who  is  regarded  as  the  father  of  the  regular 
newspaper  press. 

The  first  attempt  at  parliamentary  reporting 
was  made  in  1641;  the  first  advertisement  was  in- 
serted as  early  as  1648 ;  and  the  first  paper  exclu- 
sively devoted  to  advertisements  and  shipping  in- 
telligence appeared  in  1657.  The  news  given  in 
the  papers  treated  chiefly  of  foreign  affairs.  Home 
politics  were  scarcely  discussed  till  after  the  aboli- 
tion of  the  Star  Chamber  in  1641.  The  press  was 
for  a  long  time  subjected  to  many  persecutions, 
and  the  licensing  act  was  not  abolished  till  after 
the  accession  of  William  and  Mary. 

The  first  commercial  newspaper,  the  "  City 
Mercury,"  was  published  in  1675;  the  first  literary 
paper,  the  "  Mercurius  Librarius,"  in  1680;  the 
first  sporting  paper,  the  "Jockeys'  Intelligencer," 
in  1683;  and  the  first  medical  paper  in  1686.  The 
first  daily  newspaper,  the  "  Daily  Courant,"  was 
published  in  1709.  It  consisted  of  but  one  page  of 
two  columns,  and  contained  five  paragraphs  trans- 
lated from  foreign  journals. 

32.  Pope,  Prior,  Gay,  Parnell,  Addison,  Steele, 
Jonathan   Swift,  Congreve,  Vanbrugh,  Farquhar, 
Collier,  Bentley,  De  Foe,  and  others. 

33.  Young,    Gray,   Collins,   Akenside,   Beattie, 
Richardson,  Fielding,  Smollett,  Sterne,  Johnson, 
Goldsmith,  Fanny  Burney,  Percy,  Cowper,  Burns. 

34.  Coleridge,   Wordsworth,   Southey,    Thomas 
Campbell,  Tom  Moore,  Walter  Scott,  Lord  Byron, 
Shelley,  Keats. 


394  THE   NORMAL   QUESTION   BOOK. 

35.  Edmund  Spenser,  Samuel  Daniel,  Ben.  Jon- 
son,  William  Davenant,  John  Dryden,  Thomas 
Shadwell,  Nahum  Tate,  Nicholas  Howe,  Lawrence 
Eusdon,  Colley  Gibber, William  Whitehead,  Thomas 
Warton,  Henry  James  Pye,  Eobert  Southey, 
William  Wordsworth,  Alfred  Tennyson. 


AMERICAN    LITERATURE.  395 


QUESTIONS  ON  AMERICAN  LITERATURE. 


1.  Into  what  periods  is  American  literature  di- 
vided ? 

2.  What  was  the  character  of  the  literary  lead- 
ers in  early  colonial  times? 

3.  What  was  the  first  work  written  on  Ameri- 
can soil? 

4.  What   was   the    first  purely   literary  work 
written  here  ? 

5.  What  was  the  first  book  published  in  Amer- 
ica? 

6.  What  had  literature  to  do  with  the  success 
of  the  Revolution  ? 

7.  From  what  standpoints  may  Benjamin  Frank- 
lin be  studied? 

8.  What  ladies  wrote  in  the  Revolutionary  Pe- 
riod? 

FROM  1800  TO  1830. 

9.  Who  is  the  author  of  "Hail,  Columbia"? 

10.  Who  is  the  author  of  «  The  Star-Spangled 
Banner"? 

11.  Who   is    the   author   of  "The   Old   Oaken 
Bucket"? 

12.  Who  is  the  author  of  "  The  American  Flag  "  ? 


396  THE  NORMAL   QUESTION  BOOK. 

13.  Who  is  the  novelist  of  this  period? 

14.  Who  are  the  naturalists  of  this  period? 

15.  Who  is  the  lexicographer  of  this  period? 

16.  Who  are  the  writers  on  political  economy  of 
this  period  ? 

17.  Who  are  the  legal  and  political  writers  of 
this  period? 

18.  Name  some  of  the  theological  writers  of  this 
period. 

FROM  1830  TO  1850. 

19.  Who  was  the  first  American  novelist  that 
gained  a  national  reputation  ? 

20.  Give  a  sketch  of  Washington  Irving,  and 
name  his  principal  works. 

21.  In  what  department  of  literature  is  Ralph 
Waldo  Emerson  a  leader? 

22.  With  what  department  was  Horace  Mann 
connected? 

23.  For  what  poem  is  Fitz- Green  Halleek  noted? 

24.  Who  is  called  the  Poet  Laureate  of  America? 

25.  Who  is  the  leading  lyric  poet  of  America? 

26.  By  what  poem  did  Bryant  first  gain  a  repu- 
tation ? 

27.  Who  is  called  the  Poet-Painter  ? 

28.  Who  is  the  most  prominent  humorous  poet? 

29.  Who  is,  by  general  consent,  at  the  head  of 
novelists  ? 

30.  Who  is  the  ablest  living  American  novelist? 

31.  Who  is  the  best  story  writer  for  boys? 

32.  Who  are  the  leading  American  humorists? 
83.  Give  the  names  of  Americans  most  eminent 

in  literature  and  art.  ' 


AMERICAN    LITERATURE.  397 


ANSWERS  TO  QUESTIONS  ON  AMERICAN 
LITERATURE. 


1.  I.  The  Colonial  Age.    1613-1760. 

II.  The  Revolutionary  Period.    1760-1800. 
III.  The  Present  Age.     1800. 

The  time  since  the  year  1800  may  be  conve- 
niently divided,  so  far  as  literature  is  concerned, 
into  three  periods,  the  first  ending  in  1830,  the 
second  in  1850,  and  the  last  coming  down  to  the 
present  time. 

2.  Nearly  all  the  leaders  in  these  enterprises 
were  men  of  education,  graduates  of  the  English 
universities.     They  came  to  the  new  world  quite 
as  much  in  defense  of  opinion  as  in 'quest  of  for- 
tune, 

3.  The  first  works  in  English,  written  on  Amer- 
ican soil,  came  from  Virginia.    The  first  was  Whit- 
aker's  "  Good  Newes,"  published  in  1613. 

4.  The  "  Translation  of  Ovid's  Metamorphoses," 
by  George  Sandys,  1621. 

5.  The  first  book  printed  was  the  celebrated 
Bay  Psalm  Book,  Cambridge,  1640. 


398        THE  NORMAL  QUESTION  BOOK. 

6.  The  battle  of  the   Revolution  was  fought 
with  the  pen  as  well  as  with  the  sword.     The  lead- 
ers in  the  fight  against  the  mother  country,   had 
not  only  to  argue  their  case  before  the  tribunal  of 
the  world,  but  to  educate  their  own  countrymen 
up  to  the  point  of  armed   resistance,  and  to  hold 
them  there  during  a  long  and  gloomy  contest.     In 
the  accomplishment  of  this  great  and  varied  work, 
the  political  writers  of  the  period  used  freely  almost 
every  variety  of  style  that  could  be  made  available 
for  the  purpose.     They  made  grave  and  formal  ar- 
gument; they  employed  also  warm  and  patriotic 
appeal.     They  roused  their  own  side  by  patriotic 
ballads;  they  stung  the  enemy  with  squibs.     The 
wit  of  the  Revolutionary  Period,  though  not  per- 
haps of  a  very  high  order  of  literature,  was  yet  no 
insignificant  part  of  the  moral  force  by  which  the 
war  of  independence  was  brought  to  a  successful 
termination.     After  the  war  was  over,  there  was 
the  not  less  grave  and  difficult  task  of  guiding  the 
opinions  of  the  nation,  and  of  moulding  the  politi- 
cal elements  into  form  and  symmetry. 

7.  Benjamin    Franklin    (1706-1790)    may    be 
viewed  under  three  aspects, — as  a  sage,  a  statesman 
and  a  man  of  science;  in  each  aspect  he  stands 
among  the  first  men  of  all  time. 

8.  Susanna  Rowson  (1761-1824)  was  famous  in 
her  day  as  the  author  of  "  Charlotte  Temple." 

Mrs.  Mercy  Warren  (1728-1814)  wrote  satires 
on  the  royalists. 

9.  Joseph    Hopkinson,  LL.D.   (1770-1842),  is 


AMERICAN    LITERATURE.  399 

known  in  literature  by  a  single  brief  production  only, 
the  patriotic  song  of"  Hail,  Columbia." 

10.  Francis  Scott  Key  (1779-1843)  is,  like  Hop- 
kinson,  indebted  for  literary  celebrity  to  the  com- 
position of  a  single  patriotic  song,  "  The  Star- Span- 
gled Banner. 

11.  Samuel  Woodworth  (1785-1842),  a  poet  of 
some  note,  is  the  author  of  the  familiar  lyric,  "  The 
Old  Oaken  Bucket." 

12.  Joseph    Rodman    Drake   (1795-1820),  gave 
promise  of  the  highest  excellence  as  a  poet.     His 
early  death  caused  profound  regret.     He  is  chiefly 
known  as  the  author  of  "  The  Culprit  Fay,"  which 
is  his  largest  poem,  and  "  The  American  Flag," 
which  is  the  most  popular. 

13.  Charles  Brockden  Brown  (1771-1810),  was  a 
novelist  of  good  repute,  and  was  the  first  American 
of  any  considerable  note  who  made  literature  a  pro- 
fession. 

14.  Alexander  Wilson  and  John  James  Audubon. 

15.  Noah  "Webster,  LL.D. 

16.  Matthew  Carey  and  Albert  Gallatin. 

17.  James  Kent  and  Joseph  Story. 

18.  Sam'l  Stanhope  Smith,  Ashbel  Green,  Elipha- 
let  Nott,  Nathaniel  Ernmons,  Leonard  Woods^  John 
Henry  Hobart,  Henry  Ware,  Nathan  Bangs. 

19.  James  Fenimore  Cooper  (1789-1851)  was  the 
first  American  novelist  that  gained  a  national  rep- 
utation. He  was  also  the  first  American  writer  that 
gained  a  general  recognition  in  Europe. 

20.  Washington  Irving  (1783-1859),  the    Gold- 
smith of  America,  was  born  in  New  York.    In  his 
early  manhood  symptoms  of  alarming  disease  in- 


400         THE  NORMAL  QUESTION  BOOK. 

duced  a  voyage  to  Europe.  He  returned  to  the 
Island  of  Manhattan  with  a  mind  expanded  by  new 
scenes,  and  his  natural  love  of  travel  and  elegant 
literature  deepened.  He  became  a  law  student, 
but  his  chief  occupation  was  writing  magazine  pa- 
pers. His  principal  writings  are  :  u  Knickerbocker 
Papers,"  "Salamagundi,"  "The  Wife,"  "Pride  of 
the  Village/'  "  The  Broken  Heart/'  "  Legend  of 
Sleepy  Hollow,"  «  Bracebridge  Hall,"  "  Tales  of  a 
Traveller,"  "Life  of  Columbus,"  "Anecdotes  of  an 
Enterprise  Beyond  the  Rocky  Mountains,"  "Life 
of  Mohammed,"  "Life  of  Washington." 


21.  As  an  essayist  and  a  lecturer  on  more  famil- 
iar subjects,  he  is  singularly  attractive. 

It  is,  however,  to  a  peculiar  verbal  facility  and 
aphoristic  emphasis,  rather  than  to  any  construc- 
tive genius,  that  he  owes  the  impression  he  cre- 
ates. 

22.  Horace  Mann,  LL.  D:  (1796-1859),   is  uni- 
versally known  by  his  writings  and  labors  in  the 
cause  of  popular  education. 

23.  Marco  Bozzaris,  a  war  lyric. 

24.  Longfellow  is   clearly  our  American   Poet- 
Laureate — crowned  by  general  suffrage,  alike  of 
the  learned  and  the  unlearned,  the  critic  and  those 
who  read  only  for  the  pleasure  his  sweet  verse 
gives  them. 

25.  John  Greenleaf  Whittier  (1808-)  is  our  lead- 


AMERICAN    LITERATURE.  401 

ing  lyric  poet,  and,  with  the  exception  perhaps  of 
Bryant,  is  the  one  most  thoroughly  American. 

26.  William  Cullen  Bryant  (1794-1878),  by  the 
publication  of  his  "  Thanatopsis,"  acquired,  almost 
sixty  years  ago,  a  national  reputation  as  a  poet. 

27.  Thomas  Buchanan  Read  (1822-1872)  is  al- 
most equally  celebrated  as  an  artist  and  a  poet,  and 
is  familiarly  known  as  the  poet-painter. 

28.  John   Godfrey  Saxe  (1816-)  has  a   national 
reputation  as  a  humorous  poet. 

29.  Nathaniel  Hawthorne  (1804-1864)  stands,  by 
general  consent,  at  the  hea<J'<of  novelists  of  the 
present  period. 

30.  Mrs.  Harriet  Elizabeth  Beecher  Stowe  (1 812-) 
is  clearly  the   ablest  and   most   successful    living 
American  novelist  since  the  death  of  Hawthorne. 

31.  William  T.  Adams,  "  Oliver  Optic,"  is  the 
best  writer  we  have  of  story  books  for  boys. 

32.  C.  F.  Browne,  "Artemus  Ward ; "  S.  L.  Clem- 
ens, "  Mark  Twain  ;"  C.  H.  Webb,  "John  Paul;" 
B.  P.  Shillaber,  "Mrs.  Partington;"  H.  W.  Shaw, 
"Josh  Billings ;"  George  H.  Derby,  "John  Phoenix ;" 
Seba  Smith,  "  Major  Jack  Downing ; "  D.  R.  Locke, 
"  Petroleum  V.  Nasby ;"  George  W.  Bagby, "  Mozis 
Addums;"  Charles  G.  Leland;  Judge  Longstreet. 

26 


402  THE  NORMAL   QUESTION  BOOK. 

33.  Benjamin  Franklin,  literary,  political  and 
scientific  writer. 

Jonathan  Edwards,  metaphysician. 

Noah  Webster  and  Joseph  E.  Worcester,  lex- 
icographers. 

Bowditch,  Rittenhouse,  Loomis  and  Davies, 
mathematicians. 

Louis  Agassiz,  Alexander  Wilson  and  the  Au- 
dubons,  naturalists. 

Irving,  novelist,  historian  and  biographer. 

Cooper,  Brown,  Hawthorne  and  Arthur,  nov^ 
elists. 

Prescott,  Bancroft,  Motley,  Headley,  Sparks, 
Lossing  and  Hildreth,  historians. 

Freneau,  Bryant,  Longfellow,  Willis,  Lowell, 
Emerson,  Holmes,  Whittier,  Halleck,  Poe  and 
Dana,  poets. 

Powers,  Greenough,  Hart,  Story  and  Harriet 
Hosmer,  sculptors. 

Copley,  West,  Stuart,  Trumbull,  Yanderlyn, 
Allston,  Peale  and  Sully,  painters. 

Bryant,  Greeley,  Bennett,  Prentice,  journal- 
ists. 

Webster,  Clay,  Hayne,  Everett,  Calhoun,  Prea- 

tiss  and  Sumner,  orators. 

Browne,  Shillaber,  Shaw,  Clemens,  Locke,  hu-» 
morists. 


PENMANSHIP.  403 


QUESTIONS  ON  PENMANSHIP. 


1.  How  should  the  writer  always  sit  at  the  desk? 

2.  Name  the  different  positions. 

3.  What  should  be  the  chief  aim  in  teaching 
movement? 

4.  Name  the  different  kinds  of  movements. 

5.  Name  and  describe  the  lines  used  in  writing. 

6.  Describe  main  slant. 

7.  Describe  connective  slant. 

8.  "What  is  taken  as  the  unit  in  measuring  the 
height  of  letters? 

9.  What  is  the  unit  of  width  ? 

10.  What  is  an  angular  joining? 

11.  What  is  a  turn  ? 

12.  Into  what  three  classes  are  the  small  letters 
divided  ? 

13.  Name  the  letters  belonging  to  each  class. 

14.  Name  the  letters  belonging  to  each  class  of 
capitals. 

15.  Into  how  many  groups  are  the  small  letters 
divided  ? 

16.  Name  the  letters  of  each  group. 

17.  Into  how  many  groups  are  capitals  divided  ? 

18.  Give  the  letters  of  each  group. 

19.  Name  and  illustrate  the  principles   used  in 
writing. 

20.  Give  directions  for  spacing. 


404  THE   NORMAL   QUESTION   BOOK. 


ANSWERS  TO  QUESTIONS  ON  PENMANSHIP. 


1.  The  pupils  should  learn  to  sit  easily,  upright, 
and  keep  the  shoulders  square. 

2.  Left,  front,  right-oblique,  right. 

3.  To  secure  a  free,  easy  movement.     A  free, 
easy  movement  produces  a  graceful  line,  while  a 
stiff,  cramped  one  produces  a  rough,  irregular  line, 

4.  In  regular  writing  we  recommend  only  two 
movements,  namely,  the  combined  movement,  and 
the  whole  arm  movement. 

5.  The  horizontal  line  on  which  the   writing 
rests  is  called  the  base  line.     The  horizontal  line  to 
which  the  small  letters  extend  is  called  the  head 
line.     The  horizontal  line  to  which  the  semi-ex- 
tended letters  reach,  is  called  the  intermediate  line. 

6.  A  straight  line  standing  to  the  right  of  a 
vertical,  forming  an  angle  of  52  degrees  with  the 
horizontal,  gives  the  main  slant. 

7.  Curves  which  connect  straight  lines  in  small 
fetters  are  made  on  an  angle  of  30  degrees,  and 
called  connective  slant. 


PENMANSHIP.  405 

8.  The  unit  for  measuring  the  height  of  letters 
is  the  small  letter  "i',"  without  the  dot,  both  for 
small  and  capital  letters,  and  is  called  a  space. 

9.  The  unit  for  measuring  the  width  of  letters 
is  the  distance  between  the  two  slanting  straight 
lines  in  the  small  letter  "u,"  taken  horizontally, 
and  is  called  a  space. 

10.  An  angular  joining  is  the  meeting  of  two 
lines  in  a  point. 

11.  Short  curves  which  frequently  occur  as  the 
connecting  links  between  the  principles. 

12.  Short  letters,  semi-extended  letters,  and  loop 
letters. 

13.  Short — i,  u,  w,  n,  m,  v,  o,  a,  x,  e,  c,  r,  s. 
Semi-extended — t,  d,  p,  q. 

Loop— h,  k,  1,  b,  j,  y,  g,  z,  f,  s. 

14.  Capital  letters  are  divided  into  three  classes: 
First  class— 0,  E,  D,  C. 

Second  class— X,  W,  Q,  Z,  V,  U,  Y,  I,  J. 
Third  class— A,  ff,  M,  T,  F,  H,  K,  S,  L,  G,  P, 
B,  R. 

15.  The  small  letters  are  classified  in  six  groups, 
according  to  similarity  of  form. 

16.  First— i,  u,  w. 
Second — n,  m,  x,  v. 
Third — o,  a,  e,  c. 
Fourth — r,  s. 
Fifth— t,  d,  p,  q. 

Sixth— h,  k,  1,  b,  j,  y,  g,  f,  z,  &. 

17.  Nine. 

18.  First— 0,  E,  D. 
Second— C.  H. 
Third— X,  Z,  Q,  W. 


406        THE  NORMAL  QUESTION  BOOK. 

Fourth— V,  U,  Y. 
Fifth— A,  N,  M. 
Sixth— T,  F. 
Seventh — I,  J. 
Eighth— S,  L,  G,  K 
Ninth— P,  B,  R. 

19.  Principles  are  the  constituent  parts  of  let- 
ters.   Of  these  there  are  eight,  as  follows : 
123  4  5  67  8 


20.  Generally,  where  letters  are  joined  by  a  right 
or  left  curve,  or  where  letters  are  joined  from  top 
to  top  by  a  horizontal,  right  or  compound  curve, 
the  distance  between  them  should  be  about  one  and 
one-fourth  spaces. 

"Where  letters  are  joined  by  a  slanting  compound 
curve,  the  distance  may  be  about  one  and  one-half 
spaces,  except  such  combinations  as  yi,  ge,  so,  sa, 
gh,  to,  where  the  distance  follows  the  general  rule 
above.  Such  combinations  as  ci,  cey  co,  ca  should 
be  one  and  one-fourth  spaces  apart,  measured  from 
a  straight  line,  on  the  regular  slant,  passing  through 
the  dot  of  c  to  the  first  downward  mark  in  the  fol- 
lowing letter. 

When  c  follows  other  letters  it  should  be  meas- 
ured to  its  main  downward  line. 

Such  combinations  as  ui,  ni,  ne,  io,  ei,  eo,  im, 
an,  en,  yi,  ge,  if,  so,  sa,  gh  and  se  should  be  meas- 
ured between  downward  lines. 


PENMANSHIP.  407 

In  such  combinations  as  on,  oe,  ro,  ve,  wi,  the 
distance  between  the  nearest  parts  should  be  meas- 
ured. 

In  05,  es  and  cs,  the  distance  between  main  and 
downward  lines  should  be  fully  one  and  one-half 
spaces. 

The  distance  between  words  in  the  same  sen- 
tence should  be  three  spaces,  measured  between 
downward  lines. 

The  distance  between  figures  should  be  at  least 
one-half  a  space;  between  1's  a  whole  space. 

Between  sentences  of  the  same  paragraph,  the 
distance  measured  from  the  last  downward  mark 
of  the  first  sentence  to  the  nearest  point  of  the  next 
capital  should  be  four  spaces. 


408  THE    NORMAL   QUESTION   BOOK. 


QUESTIONS  ON  PARLIAMENTARY  RULES, 


1.  What  is  a  deliberative  assembly? 

2.  What  is  the  origin  of  the  term  parliamentary 
law? 

3.  What  is  meant  by  "the  organization  of  a 
meeting?" 

4.  What  two  kinds  of  organization  are  there  ? 

5.  What  is  the  usual  manner  of  forming  a  tem- 
porary organization  ? 

6.  Of  forming  a  permanent  organization? 

7.  What  are  the  necessary  officers  in  an  organ- 
ized body?    What  are  the  duties  of  each? 

8.  Is  a  chairman  bound  to  vote  in  case  of  a  tie? 

9.  Is  it  customary  for  a  chairman  to  participate 
in  a  discussion? 

10.  When  should  a  president  or  secretary  rise 
and  when  sit  in  the  transaction  of  business? 

11.  What  should  be  done  when  the  president  and 
vice  president  are  both  absent? 

12.  What  should  be  done  when  the  secretary  is 
absent? 

13.  Upon  what  does  a  person's  rights  depend? 

14.  What  are  the  leading  duties  and  rights  of 
members  ? 

15.  What  is  meant  by  "  obtaining  the  floor?" 


PARLIAMENTARY   RULES.  409 

16.  What   may   be   done  with  a  member  who 
speaks  without  first  obtaining  the  floor? 

17.  If  several  members  address  the  chair  at  the 
same  time,  which  should  be  first  recognized? 

18  What  should  a  member  do  when  called  to  or- 
der by  a  member  or  by  the  chairman  ? 

19.  What  should  a  president  do  when  the  mem- 
bers will  not  heed  his  requests  for  order? 

20.  Can  a  member  who  has  obtained  the  floor  be 
cut  off  from  addressing  the  assembly  by  moving  an 
adjournment  or  a  privileged  question? 

21.  Is  there  any  appeal  from  the  decision  of  the 
chair  on  a  point  of  order? 

22.  How  should  a  motion  be  managed? 

23.  Is  it  necessary  for  the  person  seconding  a 
motion  to  rise? 

24.  May  there  be  more  than  one  motion  before 
an  assembly  at  once  ? 

25.  May  a  member  speak  more  than  once  on  the 
same  question  ? 

26.  Can  a  member  yielding  the  floor  to  allow 
some  one  to  ask  a  question  or  to  make  an  explana- 
tion, claim  it  again  ? 

27.  What  is  a  privileged  question? 

28.  What  is  the  difference  between  a  privileged 
question  and  a  question  of  privilege? 

29.  What  questions  are  not  debatable  ? 

30.  How  and  when  may  a  motion  be  withdrawn  ? 

31.  What  are  the  kinds  of  committees?    How 
may  they  be  appointed?     What  are  their  duties? 
What  are  their  privileges?    How  and  what  should 
they  report? 

32.  How  is  a  committee  of  the  whole  organized? 


410        THE  NORMAL  QUESTION  BOOK. 

33.  How  does  a  committee  of  the  whole  differ 
from  an  ordinary  committee? 

34.  Explain  a  minority  report? 

35.  What  is  a  quorum  ? 

36.  Give  an  order  of  business  that  will  be  suited 
to  an  ordinary  debating  society. 

37.  Who  usually  opens  and  closes  an  argument? 

38.  Would  it  be  out  of  order  to  move  the  ac- 
ceptance of  a  report,  and  the  adoption  of  the  reso- 
lution thereto  appended,  separately? 

39.  What  is  the  order  of  precedence  in  privi- 
leged questions  ? 

40.  Give  a  list  of  topics  for  debate. 


PARLIAMENTARY  RULBS.  411 


ANSWERS  TO  QUESTIONS  ON  PARLIAMENTARY 
RULES. 


1.  A  deliberative  assembly  is  one  organized  and 
controlled,  in  the  main,  by  certain  general  princi- 
ples commonly  known  as  parliamentary  law. 

2.  These  general  principles  originated,  in  the 
•first  place,  in  the  Parliament  of  England,  or,  to  go 
still   farther  back,  in  the  old   Roman  code;  but 
modifications  have  been  introduced  by  our  general 
constitution,  also   by  the  several   states,  and  still 
greater  ones  by  the  practices  of  the  people;  -yet  the 
principal  of  all  is  essentially  the  same. 

3.  To  organize  a  meeting  is  to  supply  it  with 
the  proper  and  necessary  officers,  and  other  means 
for  carrying  out  the  ends  in  view. 

4.  Temporary  and  permanent. 

5.  When  a  number  of  persons  have  met  for  any 
purpose  any  member  may  rise,  call  for  order,  and 
nominate  some  one  for  chairman,  or  call  for  nomi- 
nations, and  call  for  a  vote.     When  a  chairman  is 
chosen  he  takes  the  chair  and  proceeds  with  the 
election  of  other  officers. 

6.  After  a  meeting  is  temporarily  organized,  a  res- 
olution is  passed  to  the  eftect  of  a  permanent  organi- 


412 


THE   NORMAL   QUESTION   BOOK. 


zation,  and  the  subject  referred  to  committees.  First, 
a  committee  with  reference  to  the  officers  is  ap- 
pointed, which  committee  should  retire,  select  per- 
sons for  the  offices  and  report  with  all  possible 
haste.  Another  committee  is  selected  to  draft  a 
constitution  and  by-laws;  this  committee  should 
report  at  its  earliest  convenience.  Both  these  re- 
ports are  submitted  to  the  general  assembly  for  its 
approval  or  condemnation. 

7.  The  following  classification  will  show  the 
usual  officers  and  the  duties  of  each : 


To  call  to  order. 

To  sustain  order. 

To  explain  and  decide  all  questions  of  order. 

To  announce  all  business. 

I>w/\*i4slswk+- 

To  receive  all  communications. 

rresiuent. 

To  sometimes  appoint  committees. 
To  state  all  motions. 

To  put  all  questions  to  vote  and  give  result. 
To  decide  a  tie  vote. 

. 

To  give  his  signature  when  necessary. 

§ 

Vice  President.  •{  In  absence  of  president  to  take  the  chair. 

t> 

Q 

To  keep  a  record  of  the  proceedings  of  the  society. 
To  write  all  letters,  orders,  etc.,  as  the  society  may 

b 

direct. 

* 

To  call  the  roll  and  mark  the  absentees. 

-4  ' 

To  call  the  roll  and  register  the  votes  when  yeas  and 

05 

nays  are  taken. 

H 

| 

Secretary. 

To  read  the  minutes  of  previous  meeting. 
To  read  all  papers  and  documents. 
To  notify  committees  of  their  appointment  and  bus- 

ff. 

iness. 

0 

To  give  his  signature  when  necessary. 
To  keep  charge  of  all  documents  belonging  to  the 

society. 

Corresponding    f  To  conduct  all  correspondence  with  individuals  or 

Secretary.       (.         societies. 

Treasurer. 


To  receive  and  hold  all  moneys  due  the  organization. 
To  disburse  all  moneys  as  the  society  may  direct. 
To  report  in  full  for  all  moneys  so  often  as  society 
may  ask. 


8.  If,  on  any  question,  the  members  are  equally 
divided,  the  President  must  give  the  casting  or  de- 
termining vote. 


PARLIAMENTARY  RULES.  413 

9.  It  is  not  customary  for  the  president  to  par- 
ticipate in  discussions ;  however,  if  he  desire,  he 
may,  by  calling  the  vice-president  or  some  other 
person  to  fill  his  place  in  the  chair. 

10.  In  reading,  the  chairman  may,  if  he  choose, 
sit;  but,  in  stating  or  putting  a  motion,  he  should 
stand. 

The  secretary  may  sit  while  calling  the  roll, 
but  should  stand  when  reading. 

11.  A  president  should  be  elected  pro  tempore. 

12.  One  should  be  elected  pro  tempore. 

13.  A  person's  rights  are  dependent  upon  his  du- 
ties, and  a  neglect  to  discharge  those  duties  forfeits 
every  claim  to  any  prerogative. 

14.  The  following  diagram  illustrates  the  duties 
and  rights  of  members  : 

To  obtain  the  floor  before  speaking. 
To  stand  when  speaking,  if  convenient. 
To  avoid  speaking  upon  any  matter  until  it  is  prop' 
erly  brought  before  the  house  by  a  motion. 


Duties  of. 


Rights  of. 


To  keep  upon  the  question  then  pending. 

To  yield  the  floor  to  calls  for  order. 

To  abstain  from  all  personalities  in  debate. 

To  avoid  disturbing  in  any  way,  speakers  of  the  asr 

sembly. 
To  refrain  from  all  words  and  acts  of  indecency. 

To  offer  any  motion  or  resolution  to  the  assembly. 
To  explain  or  discuss  that  motion,  or  any  matter  prop* 

erly  before  the  meeting. 
To  call  to  order,  if  necessary. 
To  hold  the  floor,  when  legally  obtained,  till  through 

To  appeal  from  the  decision  of  the  chair  to  that  of 
the  assembly. 


15.  When  a  member  wishes  to  make  a  motion, 
or  to  speak  to  the  meeting  on  any  matter,  he 
should  first  "obtain  the  floor,"  as  it  is  called,  by 
rising  and  addressing  the  presiding  officer  by  his 


414  THE  NORMAL    QUESTION  BOOK. 

title,  "Mr.  Chairman"  or  "Mr.  Speaker;"  which 
officer  hearing  himself  thus  addressed,  responds  by 
calling  the  member  by  name,  thus  saying  that  he  is 
in  order,  introducing  him  to  the  assembly  and  com- 
mending him  to  the  attention  of  his  fellow-mem- 
bers. In  case  the  name  of  the  member  is  not 
known,  the  chairman  requests  and  the  speaker 
gives  him  his  name. 

16.  Any  member  attempting   to  speak  without 
the  response  from  the  president  may,  at  any  time, 
be  called  down  as  being  out  of  order. 

17.  If  several  members  rise  and  address  the  chair 
at  once,  or  nearly  at   once,  the   president  should 
grant  the  precedence  to  him  whose  voice  is  first 
heard.     In  case  the  mover  of  some  question  rise 
with  some  others  to  speak,  after  the  motion  has 
been  seconded  and  stated,  it  is  the  general  practice 
to  give  him  the  first  recognition. 

18.  When  a  speaker  is  called   to  order  by  the 
president,  or  some  member,  he  should  yield   the 
floor  at  once,  until  the  decision  is  rendered. 

19.  In  case  of  persistent  disorder,  it  is  the  duty 
of  the  presiding  officer  to  designate  by  name  the 
offender.     After  a  statement  of  the  nature  of  the 
offense  from  the  president,  the  assembly  should 
decide  upon  the  punishment,  if  any,  due  to  the 
transgression. 

If  the  president  find  that,  after  repeated  at- 
tempts to  bring  about  order,  and  after  he  has  put 
forth  his  most  strenuous  efforts  to  have  harmony 
and  good  feeling  prevail,  the  assembly  does  not 
support  him,  he  will  then  be  justifiable  in  permit- 


PARLIAMENTARY   RULES.  415 

ling  disorder  to  reign,  and  his  resignation  will  not 
be  at  all  out  of  order. 

20.  When  a  member  has  obtained  the  floor,  he 
can  not  be  cut  off'  from  addressing  the  assembly 
on  the  question  before  it;  nor,  when  speaking,  can 
he  be  interrupted  in  his  speech  by  any  other  mem- 
ber rising  and   moving  an    adjournment,  or  any 
privileged  motion. 

21.  From  this  decision  any  member  may  appeal 
by   saying,   UI   appeal   from  the  decision  of  the 
chair."     If  any  one  seconds  this  appeal,  the  chair- 
man at  once  states  the  question,  "  Shall  the  decis- 
ion of  the  chair  be  sustnined?"  and  puts  it  to  vote, 
unless  time  is  desired  for  its  consideration. 

22.  The  following  diagram  gives  a  general  out- 
line of  the  management  of  a  motion  : 


Obtaining  the  floor  I By  add"essing  the  chair- 
jor.  -^  fiy  receiving  tne  response. 

Making  the  motion,  verbally  or  in  writing. 


Seconding  the  motion. 


Stating  the  motion  to  assembly  by  president.  {  Verj3JSn£  by 


Remarks  and  discussion. 


Voting  on  the  question.  {**  gjHfS"^  b?  ballot'  or 


.  Announcing  result  of  vote. 


23.  Were  the  rule  strictly  followed,  no  person 
would  be  permitted  to  second  the  motion  without 
obtaining  the  floor  as  for  any  other  purpose ;  but 
it  is  becoming  more  and  more  customary  for  the 
member  or  members  to  respond,  "  I  second,"  with- 
out rising  from  the  seat.     In  the  majority  of  cases 
this  is  better  than  a  too  rigid  observance  of  the 
law. 

24.  There  may  be  any  number  of  motions  before 
the  second ;  bu^as  soon  as  any  one  of  them  is 


416  THE   NORMAL   QUESTION   BOOK. 

ended,  it  casts  aside  all  the  others,  not  only  those 
already  made,  but  the  possibility  of  making  any 
other,  until  that  one  is  disposed  of,  unless  there  be 
a  question  of  privilege. 

25.  The  general  rule  in  all  deliberate  assemblies, 
unless  it  is  otherwise  especially  provided,  is  that  no 
member  shall  speak  more  than  once  to  the  same 
question,  although  the  debate  on  that  question  may 
be  adjourned  and  continued  through  several  days; 
and  although  a  member  who  desires  to  speak  a  sec- 
ond time  has,  in  the  course  of  the  debate,  changed 
his  opinion. 

However,  the  member  may  speak  a  second 
time  in  the  same  debate,  to  explain  some  particu- 
lar point  that  he  advanced,  or  the  like,  but  he  is 
not  to  fall  into  the  general  question. 

26.  As  a  matter  of  favor,  or  concession,  but  not  as 
a  matter  of  right,  a  speaker  who  temporarily  yields 
the  floor  in  favor  of  another,  is  generally  permit- 
ted, immediately  after  the  interruption,  to  resume 
his  remarks.     If  the  privilege  be  denied  he  can  not 
claim  it  as  a  right. 

27.  Privilege  motions  are  so  called  because,  on 
account  of  their  importance,  they  take  precedence 
over  all  other  questions  whatever. 

28.  A  privileged  question  is  one  that  takes  prece- 
dence over  others,  while  a  question  of  privilege  is  one 
that  involves  the  rights  and  privileges  of  individual 
members,  or  of  the  whole  body  taken  collectively. 

29.  Motion    to  adjourn  (unqualified),  orders  of 
the  day,  objection  to  considering  a  question,  read- 


PARLIAMENTARY   RULES. 


417 


ing  of  papers,  withdrawal  of  motion,  suspension  of 
the  rules,  to  lay  on  the  table,  the  previous  question. 

*• 

30.  When  a  motion  is  moved,  seconded  and 
stated  from  the  chair,  it  can  not  be  withdrawn  by 
the  mover,  but  only  by  a  vote  of  the  assembly. 


31..  The  following  diagram  shows,  at  a  glance,  all 
the  points  relating  to  the  appointment  and  work 
of  committees  : 


$    Select.     )    f  Of  a  part. 
1  Standing.  J  \  Of  the  whole. 


Appointment 


/£ 

•is 


By  the  president. 
f  motion. 

ballot. 
f  nominations. 


Duties. 


Privileges. 


Report. 


To  consider  the  subject  assigned,  at  large,  or  under  especial 

directions. 
To  obtain  information,  when  directed,  upon  any  matter,  by 

inquiry,  or  otherwise. 
To  digest  and  put  into  form,  for  the  adoption  of  the  assem- 

bly, all  orders,  motions,  etc.,  which  may  be  given  them. 
To  hold  their  sessions  at  the  time  and  place  appointed  by 

the  assembly. 

To  transact  their  business  just  as  a  regular  assembly. 
lo  change  their  line  of  procedure  at  any  time,  when  so  or- 

dered by  the  assembly. 
To  report  their  proceedings  in  full  to  the  assembly. 

To  elect  their  own  chairman,  if  desired. 

To  select  their  own  time  and  place  of  meeting  when  not 

provided. 
To  note  disorderly  words  and  conduct,  but  not  to  take 

any  action  thereon. 
To  adjourn  from  time  to  time  till  their  work  is  accom- 

plished. 
To  take  any  desired  action  upon  the  assigned  work,  save 

changing  the  subject  or  title. 
To  appoint  sub-committees, 

f  Should  be  in  writing. 

J  Should  be  made  by  the  chairman,  or  some  on 

appointed  for  the  purpose. 
I  Should  be  read  by  the  one  selected. 

I  May  be  a  statement  of  facts  or  opinions  without 
any  specified  conclusion. 
May  be  facts  or  opinions  concluded  with  a  res- 
olution or  resolutions 
May  be  resolutions  merely,  without  any  intro- 
duction. 


418  THE   NORMAL   QUESTION  BOOK. 

32.  "When  an  assembly  desires  to  resolve  itself 
into  a  committee  of  the  whole,  to  act  upon  any 
particular  business,  it  does  so  by  a  motion  made 
and  put  to  that  effect. 

Immediately  after  the  decision  for  the  commit- 
tee above  named,  the  chairman  of  the  assembly 
frames  some  one  to  act  as  the  presiding  officer  of 
the  committee,  resigns  his  position,  and  takes  a 
seat  among  the  members.  If  any  one  object  to 
this  appointment,  a  chairman  may  be  elected  by 
vote. 

The  secretary  of  the  general  meeting  acts  as 
clerk  of  the  committee  of  the  whole. 

33.  A  committee  of  the  whole  can  not  adjourn 
from  time  to  time  till  the  business  is  finished ;  but 
if  more  than  one  sitting  is  necessary,  the  form  for 
proceeding  is  for  some  member  to  move  that  the 
committee  rise,  report  progress,  and  ask  leave  to 
sit  again ;  and  if  this  motion  prevails,  the  chair- 
man rises;  the  presiding  officer  resumes  the  chair 
of  the  assembly,  and  the  chairman  of  the  commit- 
tee informs  him  that  the  committee  of  the  whole 
have,  according  to  order,  had  under  their  consider- 
ation such  a  matter,  and  have  made  some  progress 
therein ;  but,  not  having  had  time  to  go  through 
with  the  same,  have  directed  him  to  ask  leave  for  the 
Committee  to  sit  again.    The  presiding  officer  then 
puts  a  question  on  giving  the  committee  leave  to 
sit  again,  and  also  on  the  time  when  the  assembly 
will  again  resolve  itself  into  a  committee  of  the 
whole.     If  leave  to  sit  again  is  not  granted,  the 
committee  is  dissolved. 


PARLIAMENTARY  RULES.  419 

The  committee  of  the  whole  can  not  appoint 
sub-committees  to  assist  in  the  work. 

In  this  committee  a  member  must  be  heard  as 
often  as  he  desires  to  speak  and  can  obtain  the 
floor.  In  the  committee  no  appeal  from  the  decis- 
ion of  the  chair  is  allowed ;  neither  a  vote  by  yeas 
and  nays  The  motion  for  the  previous  question 
can  not  be  made  in  the  committee. 

34.  Strictly  ov  parliamentarily  speaking,  there 
can  be  no  such  thing  as  a  formal  report  from  the 
minority,  and  if  any  member  desire  anything  of 
the  kind,  he  must  act  as  an  individual.     However, 
it  is  sometimes  permitted,  more  as  an  act  of  court- 
esy than  anything   else,  that  the  minority  report 
may  accompany  the  proper  one,  as  the  opinions  of 
the  minority ;  in  order  to  be  adopted,  it  must  be 
moved  as  an  amendment  to  the  report,  when  that 
is  before  the  meeting  for  a  hearing. 

35.  A  quorum  is  such  a  number  of  members  as 
may,  by  rule  or  statute,  be  required  to  be  present 
at  a  meeting  in  order  to  render  the  transaction  of 
the  body  legal  or  valid. 

36. 

f    1.  The  call  to  order. 

2.  Calling  the  roll  of  members. 

fRead. 

3.  Minutes  of  previous  meeting^  Correct. 

(Adopt. 

4.  Miscellaneous  business. 

5.  Unfinished  business. 

6.  Report  of  committees. 

7.  Communications. 

(Debate, 

8.  Orders  of  the  day.X  Declamations, 

(Essays,  etc. 

9.  Critic's  report. 

10.  General  and  mutual  criticisms. 

11.  Election  of  officers. 

12.  Arranging  the  programme  for  next  meeting. 

13.  Adjournment. 

37.  The  side  that  affirms. 


420 


THE   NORMAL   QUESTION  BOOK. 


38.  It  is  not  only  not  out  of  order,  but,  in  fact, 
the  way,  first,  to  accept  the  report  by  a  regular 
motion  to  that  effect,  and  then  adopt  the  resolu- 
tion, if  satisfactory,  by  a  separate  vote. 

39.  The  annexed  diagram  shows  the  order  in 
which  privileged  questions  have  precedence: 


Privileged 
proper, 


^    C  1.  Motion  for  adjournment. 

•<  2.  Motions  as  to  privileges  of  members. 
V.  3.  Motions  for  orders  of  the  day. 


Subsidiary. 


4.  Motion  to  lay  on  the  table 


(Motion  for  previous  question. 
Motion  to  postpone  to  a  cer- 
tain day. 
Motion  to  commit. 
Motion  to  amend. 


a.  Prev.  qu.  and 
Postpone. 
Commit. 
Amend. 

b.  Postpone  and 
Previous  qu. 
Commit. 
Amend. 

c.  Commit  and 
Previous  qu. 
Postpone. 
Amend. 

d.  Amend  and 
Previous  qu. 
Postpone. 
Commit. 


Incidental. 


6.  Motion  to  postpone  indefinitely. 

Motions  concerning  questions  of  order. 
Motion  for  reading  of  papers. 
Motion  for  the  withdrawal  of  a  motion. 
Motion  for  suspension  of  rules. 
Motion  to  amend  an  amendment. 


Resolved: 

40.  (1)  That  the  slanderer  is  a  more  pernicious 
character  than  the  flatterer. 

(2)  That  national  wealth  is  incompatible  with 
national  virtue. 

(3)  That  city  life  is  preferable  to  country  life. 

(4)  That  we  can  not  reasonably  indulge  the 
hope  of  universal  peace. 

(5)  That  party  spirit  is  productive  of  more 
good  than  evil. 


PARLIAMENTARY   RULES.  421 

(6)  That  mankind  suffer  more  from  imagin- 
ary evils  than  from  real  evils. 

(7)  That  a  lie  is  sometimes  justifiable. 

(8)  That  it  is  more  harmful  to  be  too  credu- 
lous than  to  be  too  suspicious. 

(9)  That  the  miser  is  more  injurious  to  soci- 
ety than  the  spendthrift. 

(10)  That  theaters  are  more  beneficial  than 
injurious. 

(11)  That  fictitious  writings  are  more  injuri- 
ous than  beneficial. 

(12)  That  phrenology  is  entitled  to  rank  as  a 
true  science. 

(13)  That  the  mental  faculties  of  males  are 
not  superior  to  those  of  females. 

(14)  That  banks  are  more  beneficial  than  in- 
jurious to  a  community. 

(15)  That  the  execution  of  Major  Andre  was 
justifiable. 

(16)  That  the  virtues  of  the  Puritans  are  gen- 
erally over-estimated. 

(17)  That  conscience  is  always  a  correct  moral 
guide. 

(18)  That  inventions  improve  the  condition  of 
the  laboring  classes. 

(19)  That  savage   nations   posses?  a  right  to 
the  soil. 

(20)  That  men  of  action  have  been  of  more 
benefit  to  the  world  than  men  of  thought  have. 

(21)  That  there  ought  to  be  a  property  quali- 
fication for  suffrage. 

(22)  That   a   monarchy  is   the   strongest  and 
most  stable  form  of  government. 


422         THE  NORMAL  QUESTION  BOOK. 

(23)  That  a  man  is  justifiable  in  obeying  a  law 
of  his  country  which  he  believes  to  be  morally 
wrong. 

(24)  That  teachers  exercise  a  greater  influence 
than  parents  in  forming  the  character  of  the  young. 

(25)  That  a  lawyer  is  justifiable  in  defending 
a  bad  man. 

(26)  That  the  pulpit  affords  a  better  field  for 
eloquence  than  the  bar. 

(27)  That  many  enemies  are  a  higher  proof  of 
merit  than  many  friends. 

(28)  That  very  large  cities  are  an  injury  to  a 
country. 

(29)  That  the  practice  of  granting  special  reduc- 
tions from  school  expenses  to  the  children  of  minis- 
ters is  not  only  an  unjust  but  a  pernicious  system. 

(30)  That  inebriates  have  as  good  a  claim  upon 
society  for  aid  as  the  insane  or  poverty  stricken. 

(31)  That  parents  are  responsible  for  the  phys- 
ical, mental,  and  moral  condition  of  their  offspring. 

(32)  That  a  union  of  all  churches  would  pro- 
mote the  true  interests  of  Christianity. 

(33)  That  a  compulsory  system  of  education  is 
incompatible  with  a  truly  republican  form  of  gov- 
ernment. 

(34)  That  the  wages  of  laboring  persons  should 
be  fixed  by  law. 

(35)  That  geology  strengthens  our  faith  in  the 
Bible. 

(36)  That  civilization   progresses  faster  than 
the  churches  do. 

(37)  That  public  opinion  be  regarded  as  the 
standard  of  right 


PARLIAMENTARY   RULES.  423 

(38)  That  politics  affords  better  opportunities 
for  personal  advancement  than  literature. 

(39)  That  the  President  of  the  United  States 
should  be  elected  for  six  years  and  made  ineligible 
to  a  second  term. 

(40)  That  the  doctrine  of  endless  punishment 
is  taught  in  the  Bible. 

(41)  That  the  United  States,  as  a  nation,  owes 
;nore  to  England  than  to  France. 

(42)  That  parents  do  injustice  to  their  children 
by  laboring  to  leave  them  a  fortune. 

(43)  That  the  veto  power  of  the  President  of 
the  United  States  should  be  repealed. 

(44)  That  a  student  should  direct  his  studies 
with  reference  to  a  particular  profession. 

(45)  That  the  immigration  of  foreigners  to  this 
country  be  restricted. 

(46)  That  there  is  more  pleasure  in  pursuit 
than  in  possession. 

(47)  That  excessive  prosperity  is  more  danger- 
ous than  excessive  adversity. 

(48)  That  women  be  granted  the  right  of  suf- 
frage throughout  the  nation. 

(49)  That    the    Indians    have    been    wrongly 
treated  by  the  U.  S.  Government. 

(50)  That  lynch  law  is  sometimes  justifiable. ' 


424         THE  NORMAL  QUESTION  BOOK. 


QUESTIONS   ON   PSYCHOLOGY   AND 
PEDAGOGY. 


1.  What  is  psychology  ? 

2.  What  objection  is  there  to  defining  psy- 
chology as  the  science  of  mind  ? 

3.  What  is  the  difference  between  mind,  soul, 
and  spirit  ? 

4.  What   is    the    educational   importance   of 
psychology  ? 

5.  What    different    ways    of    studying    psy- 
chology are  there  ? 

6.  What  is  the  organ  of  mind  ? 

7.  How  do  we  get  our  first  elements  of  knowl- 
edge? 

8.  What  are  the  conditions  of  sensation? 

9.  What  is  the  function  of  the  nerves  ? 

10.  What  is  the  function  of  nerve-cells  ? 

11.  Illustrate  the  process  of  sensation. 

12.  Define  sensation. 

•  13.  Through  what  organs  does  the  stimulation 
reach  the  nerve  ? 

14.  What  is  the  most  important  sense  ? 

15.  What  practical  inference  should  be  drawn 
from  the  above  facts  ? 


PSYCHOLOGY  AND  PEDAGOGY.          425 

16.  What  is  the  special  value  of  the  sense  of 
sight  in  education  ? 

17.  What  attention  should  be  paid  to  indi- 
vidual differences  in  sense  organs  ? 

18.  What  is  the  ultimate  aim  in  appealing  to 
the  senses  ? 

19.  What  is  interest? 

20.  What  is  the  psychological  value  of   in- 
terest ? 

21.  What    educational    principle    should    be 
deduced  ? 

22.  What  are  impulses  ? 

23.  What  should    the    impulse  of   imitation 
lead  a  teacher  to  be  1 

24.  What  are  sensation,  interest,  and  impulse 
called  ? 

25.  What  is  attention  ? 

26.  What  is  voluntary  attention  ? 

27.  What  is  non-voluntary  attention  ? 

28.  What  is  the  importance  of  attention  ? 

29.  Show  that  the  sensations  of  which  we  are 
conscious  depend  upon  attention. 

'  30.  Can  attention  be  secured  by  a  direction  of 
the  teacher  to  "pay  attention  "  ? 

31.  Is  inattention  on  the  part  of  a  pupil  a 
culpable  fault  ? 

32.  How  can  voluntary  attention  be  secured  ? 

33.  What    is    meant    by    the    association    of 
ideas  ? 

34.  What  are  the  two  laws  of  association  ? 

35.  What  are  the  results  of  association  ? 

36.  How  is  habit  connected  with  the  associa- 
tion of  ideas  ? 


426         THE  NORMAL  QUESTION  BOOK. 

37.  Infer  the  value  of  association  from  the 
value  of  habit. 

38.  What  is  the  important  principle  in  the 
formation  of  habits  in  early  education  ? 

39.  What  are  non-voluntary  attention,  volun- 
tary attention,  and  association  sometimes  called  ? 

40.  What  is  perception,  and  upon  what  does 
it  depend  ? 

41.  State  the  importance  of  the  training  of 
perception. 

42.  What  has  been  introduced  into  the  schools 
in  later  years  mainly  for  the  purpose  of  training 
in  the  power  to  observe  ? 

43.  What  is  apperception  ? 

44.  What  is  retention  ? 

45.  What   should    take  the  place  of   verbal 
memorizing  ? 

46.  How  does  imagination  differ  from  memory  ? 

47.  Can  the  imagination  be  directly  trained  ? 

48.  Upon  what  does  the  stage  of  intellectual 
development  called  thinking,  depend  ? 

49.  What  is  meant  by  relations  ? 

50.  What  subjects  best  train  thought  ? 

51.  What  are  some  of  the  conditions  of  emo- 
tional development,  or  of  interest  ? 

52.  What  studies  appeal  to  the  emotions  ? 

53.  When  does  impulse  turn  into  volition,  or 
will? 

54.  What  studies  particularly  cultivate  voli- 
tion? 

55.  Discuss  method  in  teaching. 

56.  What  has  brought   "  methods"  into  dis- 
repute ? 


PSYCHOLOGY   AND    PEDAGOGY.  427 

57.  Are  any  "  set "  methods  profitable  1 

58.  What  method  (in  the  broad  sense  of  the 
term)  is  best  adapted  to  young  pupils  ? 

59.  To  use  the  analytic  method  successfully,  in 
what  should  a  teacher  be  skilled  ? 

60.  What  danger  is  there  in  questioning  ? 

61.  Give  suggestions  in  regard  to  questioning. 

62.  In    presenting    a    subject    for    the    first 
time,   to    what    should    the    first  questions  re- 
late ? 

63.  Of  what  use  is  an  oral  reproduction,  or 
recitation  ? 

64.  Of  what  further  use  is  a  written  reproduc- 
tion ? 

65.  When  is  a  topical  reproduction  in  order  ? 

66.  Does  the  analytic  method  conflict  with  the 
educational  principle,  "  Proceed  from  the  whole 
to  the  parts"  ? 

67.  Does  presentation  of  a  subject  exclude  the 
use  of  text-books  ? 

68.  Give  arguments   favoring  the   individual 
training  of  the  pupil. 

69.  Does  the  present  condition  of  the  public 
schools  favor  such  training? 

70.  What  benefits  arise  from  grouping  chil- 
dren in  classes  ? 

71.  Give  arguments  for  graded  schools. 

72.  Arguments  against. 

73.  What    reasons    hold    for    introducing    so 
many  subjects  of  study  into  the  primary  and 
grammar  schools  ? 

74.  What  is  the  danger  of  presenting  so  many 
subjects  3 


428  THE    NORMAL    QUESTION   BOOK. 

75.  Criticise  the  present  curriculum  of  high 
schools. 

76.  Of  what  use  is  a  program  of  daily  work  ? 

77.  What  care  should  be  taken  in  making  a 
program  ? 

78.  How  should  good  government  be  secured 
in  school  ? 

79.  What  is  the  first  condition  of  sound  men- 
tal development  ? 

80.  What  knowledge  does  this  necessitate  on 
the  part  of  the  teacher  ? 

81.  What  is  the  body  to  the  mind,  or  soul  ? 

82.  What  relation   have  the  muscles  to  the 
will? 

83.  What  is  believed  to  be  true  of  the  mind 
and  brain  ? 

84.  Inferring  from  the  above,  what  seems  nec- 
essary under  present  conditions,  when  popula- 
tion   is    centred  in  cities   and    the    farms    are 
deserted  ? 

85.  What  hygienic  conditions  should  receive 
the  constant  attention  of  a  teacher  ? 

86.  What  opportunity  does  the  school  furnish 
for  moral  training  ? 

87.  Should  there  be  direct  moral  training  ? 

88.  What  was  the  character  of  the  first  study 
of  pedagogy  in  this  country  ? 

89.  What  is  the  later,  and  better  tendency  ? 

90.  State  the  general  effect  of  child-study. 

91.  Specify  some  of  the  benefits  of  this  study 
in  actual  practice. 

92.  At  what  period  in  the  training  of  pupils  is 
departmental  teaching  of  greatest  value  I 


PSYCHOLOGY    AND   PEDAGOGY.  429 

93.  What  is  the  objection  to  it  in  the  lower 
grades  ? 

94.  What  is  the  educational  value  of  drawing? 

95.  What  should  be  the  character  of  a  teacher  ? 

96.  What  is  the  true  end  of  education  ? 


430         THE  NOBMAL  QUESTION  BOOK. 


ANSWERS  TO  QUESTION  ON  PSYCHOL- 
OGY AND  PEDAGOGY. 


1.  The  science  of  the  phenomena  of  mind. 

2.  Nothing  is  known  of  the  mind  itself,  but 
only  of  what  it  does,  or  its  phenomena. 

3.  They  are  one  and  the  same,  except  that 
usage  has  given  them  slight  differences  in  mean- 
ing.    Soul  suggests  the  close  relation  between 
mind  and  body,   and  spirit  the  moral  and  re- 
ligious activities  of  mind. 

4.  It  is  the  science  of  the  activities  of  mind, 
and  it  reveals  the  processes  upon  which  educa- 
tional methods  must  be  based. 

5.  One  may  study  the  action  of  his  own  mind. 
He  may  study  children,  and  watch  the  develop- 
ment of  mind.     He  may  study  lower  animals  to 
learn  of  the  lower  stages  of  psychical  life,  or 
defective  and  disordered  minds.     Or  instead  of 
studying  mind  he  may  study  its  products,  and 
reason  back  to  the  activities  of  mind  necessary 
to  produce  those  results. 

6.  The  brain. 

7.  Through  sensation. 

8.  An  external  stimulus,   nerves,   and  nerve 
centres. 


PSYCHOLOGY  AND  PEDAGOGY.          431 

9.  They  transmit  stimulations  from   the  sur- 
face of  the  body  to  the  nerve  centres,  and  trans- 
mit impulses  from  those  centres  to  the  muscles. 

10.  Tlisy  receive  the  stimulations  transmitted 
by   the  nerves,   and    send    impulses  along  the 
nerves  to  the  muscles. 

11.  The  hand  comes  in  contact  with  a  hot  coal. 
The  nerve  transmits  the  message  to  the  brain, 
and  it,  in  turn,  sends  it  on  to  the  muscles,  and 
the  hand  is  withdrawn. 

12.  A  sensation  is  that    simple  mental  fact 
that,  under  normal  circumstances,  directly  fol- 
lows the  last  change  in  the  brain,  in  consequence 
of  the    stimulation  of    a  sensory    nerve.     (See 
Gordy's  Psychology.) 

13.  Through  the  organs  of  touch,  sight,  hear- 
ing, smell,  and  taste. 

14.  Touch.     The  other  senses  are  but  differen- 
tiations of  it.     Biology  proves  this.     It  is  also  a 
well-known  fact  that  the  other  senses  rest  upon 
it  for  assistance  and  confirmation. 

15.  That  in  early  education  the  teacher  must 
rely  largely  upon  the  sense  of  touch.     The  child 
is  not  perfectly  satisfied  until  he  has  the  object 
he  perceives  in  his  hand,  and  turns  it  over  and 
over — and  learns  its  qualities  for  himself.     It  is 
not  enough  that  the  teacher  holds  the  object. 
Each   child,   to  secure    the  best  results,   must 
actually  handle  it.    This  kind  of  objective  teach- 
ing,  sensibly  adapted  to  the  stage  of  develop- 
ment   reached    by    the    pupil,    rests    upon    a 
psychological  basis. 

16.  When  there  is  presented  a  whole,  made  up 


432  THE   NORMAL    QUESTION   BOOK. 

of  co-existent  parts,  the  eye  seems  specially 
adapted  to  grasp  the  relations  of  a  complex  sub- 
ject. Hence  the  use  of  maps,  charts,  and  all 
graphic  representations. 

17.  Sometimes  one  sense  predominates  in  one 
child,  and  another  in  another.     For  instance,  if 
hearing  predominates,  a  pupil  will  learn  more 
easily  by  studying  aloud  or  by  oral  teaching. 
Many  people  can  more  easily  understand,   or 
memorize  what  they  write.     In  this  case  muscu- 
lar activity  with  touch  takes  the  lead.     A  one- 
sided development  of  any  sense  is  to  be  avoided, 
but  a  teacher  can  often  be  of  great  service  to  the 
pupil  by  knowing  what  sense  predominates,  and 
appealing  to  it. 

18.  To  develop  the  self-activity  of  the  child  by 
putting  into  motion  those  processes  that  will 
apprehend  the  sensations  so  that  they  will  grow 
naturally  into  memory,  imagination,  and  thought. 
It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  sensation  is  not 
knowledge,  but  a  stimulus  to  it,  and  material 
for  it. 

19.  Interest  can  be  felt  better  than  defined. 
It  does  not  give  information,   but  it  helps  in 
acquiring  it.     It  arises  from  the  state  of  the 
mind   itself.     It    is    emotional.     It    is    usually 
accompanied  by  pain  or  pleasure. 

20.  It  is  the  means  by  which  the  mind  is  drawn 
to  any  subject,  and  led  to  exercise  itself  upon  it. 
The  mind  is  indifferent  to  whatever  does  not 
interest  it. 

21.  That  teaching   should  always    appeal  to 
some  interest,  and  if  the  subject  is  of  itself  unin- 


PSYCHOLOGY  AND  PEDAGOGY.          433 

teresting,  interest  should  be  made  to  gather 
about  it  by  an  attractive  method  of  presentation, 
or  by  the  personal  power  of  the  teacher. 

22.  They  are  activities  that  arise  from  some 
feeling  of  want, — for  instance,  the  impulse  for 
food.     Impulses  are  classified  according  to  the 
stimulus  that  arouses  the  sense  of  want,  impulses 
of  sensation,  of  perception,  of  imitation,  and  of 
expression. 

23.  As  perfect  a  model  as  possible.    When  a 
pupil  is  in  sympathy  with  a  teacher  it  is  a 
delight  to  imitate  him.     Thus  all  the  character- 
istics of  a  teacher,  self-control,  energy,  intellectu- 
ality, etc. ,  as  well  as  personal  habits,  neatness, 
dress,  voice,  manners,  have  a  powerful  influence 
in  forming  the  character  of  the  pupil. 

24.  The  bases  of  psychical  life. 

25.  Attention  is  that  act  of  the  mind  by  which 
we  bring  into  clear  consciousness  any  subject,  or 
object  before  the  mind.     (Gordy.) 

26.  Voluntary  attention  is  that  which  comes 
through  an  exercise  of  the  will,  and  not  through 
the  thing  attended  to. 

27.  It  is  that  attention  which  results  from  the 
influence  exerted  upon  the  mind  by  the  thing 
attended  to,  in  and  of  itself.     (Gordy.) 

28.  It  is  the  one  condition  of  learning  that  can 
not    be   dispensed    with.     Its   importance    can 
hardly  be  overestimated. 

29.  One  may  be  absorbed  by  a  book,  and  not 
hear  the  clock  strike  because  his  attention  is 
concentrated  upon  the  book.     A  person  senses 
only  that  to  which  he  attends.     The  strength  of 


434  THE   NORMAL   QUESTION   BOOK. 

the  sensation  depends  upon  the  degree  of  atten- 
tion. 

30.  No.     Attention,  to  be  of  great  value,  can- 
not be  forced.     The  subject-matter  must  be  made 
interesting,  and  then  attention  will  follow.     The 
importance  of  interest  in  securing  attention  is 
great.     It  is  well  to  remember  that  interest  and 
amusement  are  not  synonymous. 

31.  It  is  not.     Very  few  if  any  young  pupils 
are  capable  of  continuous  voluntary  attention. 
This  power  must  be  trained  and  cultivated. 

32.  Its  basis  is  interest.    Interest  leads  to  non- 
voluntary  attention,  this  in  turn  to  voluntary 
attention,   which  is  the  test  and  condition  of 
intellectual  development. 

33.  When  there  arises  oat  of  some  presenta- 
tion   or  idea    another    idea,   and  out  of    that 
another,  and  so  on,  the  whole  process  is  called 
the  association  of  ideas. 

34.  The  law  of  association  by  contiguity,  that 
thoughts,   or  ideas,   or    experiences  that  have 
been  in  the  mind  at,  or  about  the  same  time 
tend  to  recall  each  other ;  and  the  law  of  asso- 
ciation   by    similarity,    that    similar   thoughts, 
or   ideas,   or    experiences    tend  to  recall    each 
other.     (Gordy.) 

35.  Through  it  order  and  regularity  come  into 
psychical  life.     Ideas  are  no  longer  isolated,  but 
follow,   one    after   the    other,   in    a    connected 
manner,  forming  a  train  of  ideas  having  some 
unity. 

36.  By    habit   is    meant    such  a  thoroughly 
formed  train  of  associations,  that  if  one  part  of 


PSYCHOLOGY   AND    PEDAGOGY.  435 

the  train    comes  into    consciousness    the    rest 
follows  without  any  exercise  of  the  will. 

37.  It  is  by  the  formation  of  habits  that  the 
child  learns  to  talk,  to  walk,  or  to  control  him- 
self in  any  definite  direction.     If  habits  were  not 
formed  each  act  of  life  would  require  conscious 
attention.     Habit  relieves    the    mind  from   the 
supervision  of  all  acts  that  have  become  habitual, 
and  leaves  it  free  to  devote  itself  to  other  matters. 
Hence  the  importance  of  the  basis  of  habit, — 
association. 

38.  Repetition.     It  is  an  unfailing  law  that 
the  power  and  tendency  to  follow  any  course  of 
action  are    measured    by  the    frequency    with 
which  acts  have  been  repeated. 

The  law  holds  in  all  education,  physical,  intel- 
lectual, moral.  A  teacher  understanding  this 
can  greatly  aid  in  constructing  for  his  young 
pupils  a  bulwark  of  strength  against  later 
encroachments,  by  sinking  the  primary  elements 
of  character  into  habits. 

39.  The    psychical    processes,    which,    acting 
upon  sensation,  interest,  and  impulse  result  in 
the  three  forms  of  psychical  development,  the 
intellectual,  the  emotional,  and  the  volitional. 

40.  It  is  the  recognition  of  some  object  present 
to  the  senses.     It  depends  upon   the  power  to 
observe. 

41.  Perception  is  the  germ  of  all  other  stages 
of  knowledge ;   therefore,   unless  perception  is 
rightly     trained,     memory,     imagination,     and 
thought,  which  grow  out  of  it,  will  suffer,  not 
only  because  there  is  not  sufficient  material  for 


436  THE   NORMAL    QUESTION   BOOK. 

them,  but  the  mental  activities  necessary  will  be 
defective.  Training  in  the  power  to  observe 
should  be  one  of  the  prime  objects  of  a  teacher's 
work. 

42.  Nature  work. 

43.  It  is  a  process  of  interpretation.     When  a 
new  truth  is  presented  to  the  mind,  that  which 
is  already  in  the  mind  interprets  the  new  as  well 
as  it  can,  and  attaches  it  to  the  body  of  knowl- 
edge already  there. 

44.  The  effect  which  the.  new  has  upon  the  old 
content  is  called  retention. 

45.  Memory    should  be  trained  through   the 
apperceiving  powers.     If  the  original  perception 
is  clear  and  comprehensive,  memory  will  take 
care  of  itself,  at  least  with  the  proper  amount  of 
repetition. 

46.  It  is  not,  like  memory,  held  to  actual  ex- 
perience.    It  takes  the  mind  beyond  its  own 
experience,  beyond  the  present  and  apparent. 
It  idealizes. 

47.  Not   to  any   extent.    Imagination  is  the 
outgrowth  of  perception  and  memory,  and  if 
they  supply  scanty  material  it  will  be  defective. 
Certain  studies  cultivate  the  imagination,  such 
as  geography,  history,  and  literature,  also  the 
observation  of  the  beauties  of  nature. 

48.  Upon  all  that  precedes.     Thinking  is  not  a 
faculty  by  itself,  apart  from  what  is  thought  of. 
It  is  the  outcome  of  perception,  memory,  and 
imagination.    If  the  basis  upon  which  thinking 
rests  is  weak,  there  will  not  be  much  power  of 
thought. 


PSYCHOLOGY    AND   PEDAGOGY.  437 

Thinking  deals  with  what  is  general,  or  with 
classes,  and  not  with  particulars.  It  also  deals 
with  relations. 

49.  Relations  arise  from  comparison  for  the 
purpose  of    noting    identity  or   difference.     It 
involves  analysis  or  synthesis — or  induction  and 
deduction.     Induction  begins    with  particulars 
and  proceeds  to  the  general.     Deduction  begins 
with  the  general  and  proceeds  to  the  particular. 

50.  Language  and  science.     In  both  these  are 
classification,    grouping,    selection.    In    science 
especially  there  is  exact  statement  of  relations, 
groups  of  relations,  of  reference,  of  fact  to  law 
and  law  to  fact.     In  every  step  of  science  there 
is  reasoning. 

51.  1.   ''Activity  is  a  law  of  childhood."     It 
may  be  added  that  it  is  a  law  of  any  normal 
mind.     The  mind  strives  to  express  itself  in  some 
way,   and    whatever    calls    forth    this    activity 
increases  interest.     This  principle  is  almost  the 
highest  in  educational  importance.     The  child's 
own  activity  must  be  appealed  to  if  he  becomes 
interested  in  any  subject.     2.  Stimulus  to  mental 
activity  must  be  adapted  to  the  stage  of  develop- 
ment which  the  child  has  reached.    Too  easy 
material,  or  too  difficult,  fails  to  rouse  interest. 
3.  Change  or  alternation  in  studies,  or  a  new  way 
of  presenting  them,  will  often  arouse  interest. 
The  nerves,  fatigued  in  one  direction,  will  give 
stronger  impressions  in  another.    The  personality 
of  the  teacher  is  an  important  factor  in  develop- 
ing the  emotional  side  of  a  child's  nature. 

52.  Art,  music,  and  literature. 


438         THE  NORMAL  QUESTION  BOOK. 

53.  When  it  is  controlled  by  the  processes  of 
attention  and  association,  and  harmonized  by  the 
conception  of  some  end.      This  may  be  more 
curtly  expressed  by  saying  that  not  only  know- 
ing, but  doing,  is  included  in  an  act  of  the  will. 

54.  Manual  training  and  laboratory  work. 

55.  Method  rightly  understood  is  of  the  highest 
value.    The  whole  subject  of  education  practi- 
cally rests  upon  it.     But  in  order  to  be  of  value 
it  must  be  tributary  to  the  natural  processes  of 
mind.     True  methods  are  ways  of  approach  to 
the  learner's  mind,   and   ways  of  directing  its 
activities  according  to  well-understood  laws. 

56.  Servile  imitation  of  methods  not  appre- 
hended, mechanical  adherence  to  empirical  rules, 
and  blind  observance  of  pedagogical  formulae,  so 
that  much  that  is  called  teaching  is  nothing  but 
dead  formalism. 

57.  No.     A  teacher  should  be  sufficiently  versa- 
tile to  adapt  his  method  to  his  pupil.     A  teacher 
with  high  aims,  and  enthusiastic  devotion  to  his 
work,  thoroughly  versed  in  the  subject  he  has  to 
teach,  'knowing  the  laws   that  govern   mental 
development,  will  be  able  to  teach  effectively 
without  any  knowledge  of  methods  per  se.     His 
method  is  simply  his  way.     He  originates  his 
method. 

58.  The  analytic.     The  immature  mind  cannot 
perform  the  necessary  analysis  for  itself.     It  is 
the  work  of  the  teacher  to  subdivide  and  analyze 
the  matter  to  be  taught,  so  that  the  pupil's  mind 
shall  work  analytically. 

This  method  economizes  mental  energy,  and 


^x 

'  OF  THE  \ 

f  UNIVERSITY  ) 


OF 

FO 

PSYCHOLOGY   AND   PEDAGOGY.  439 

excludes  what  does  not  pertain  to  the  subject- 
matter.  It  is  also  important  in  that  it  tends  to 
form  the  analytic  habit. 

59.  In  the  art  of  questioning. 

60.  Danger  that  the  subject  will  be  too  minutely 
analyzed,    and    questions    will    be  weak,    and 
unstimulating.     One  writer  says  :  "  Witness  the 
'mob'   of  questions  that  the  young  teacher  is 
recommended  to  ask  on  three  or  four  lines  of  a 
reading  lesson.     Witness  the  trivial  development 
questions  recommended  for  the  evolution  of  ideas 
already  in  the  child's  mind  if  he  has  a  minimum 
of  brain  power."     But  in  spite  of  this  danger,  an 
eminent  authority  has  said  that  the  art  of  teach- 
ing is  the  art  of  questioning. 

61.  Questions  should  be  definite,  and  not  vague. 
Questions  should  follow  each  other  in  logical 
sequence.     Questions  should  be  neither  too  easy 
nor  too  difficult.     Questions  should  be  varied  in 
form.     Questions  should  be  given  in  clear  and 
concise  language. 

62.  To  that    which    is    already  in    the  mind 
most  nearly  related  to  the  new.     This  is  in  ac- 
cordance with  the    principle    of    apperception. 
A  brief  review    of    a    previous    related    lesson 
puts  the  mind  in  the  best  attitude  to  receive  the 
new. 

63.  To  test  the  pupil's  knowledge  of  the  sub- 
ject.    To   cultivate   oral   expression.     To  detect 
and  correct  mistakes  in  knowledge,  and  to  impart 
any  necessary  additional  information. 

64.  To    give    opportunity    for    independent 
thought  without  the  stimulus  of  answers  from 


440      .  THE   NORMAL   QUESTION   BOOK. 

other  pupils.     To  furnish  practice  in  composition, 
writing,  spelling,  and  punctuation. 

65.  When  questions  have  led  to  a  thorough  ap- 
prehension of  the  subject-matter,  a  summary,  sug- 
gested by  a  few  topics,  should  be  given— so  that 
what  has  been  grasped  and  expressed  in  isolated 
sentences  may  be  reproduced  in  connected  form. 

66.  It  does  not.     Any  part  of  a  subject  to  be 
presented  may  be  considered  as  a  whole.    It  is 
one  of  the  secrets  of  good  teaching  that  every 
lesson  should  have  a  central  truth,  or  a  whole, 
around  which  the  questions  of  the  presentation 
should  gather. 

67.  On  the  contrary  it  gives  greater  value  to 
them.     When  the  "ground"  is  once  broken  by 
judicious  questioning,  a  pupil  is  able  to  "  study" 
intelligently  and  with  less  danger  of  memorizing 
words  and  nothing  more. 

68.  Reference  has  been  made  to  the  difference 
in  the  susceptibility  of  the  sense  organs  of  dif- 
ferent people.     It    has  also    been    stated   that 
memory,  imagination,  and  reasoning  are  all  built 
up  on  sensation.     The  inference  must  be  that  dif- 
ferences exist  in  the  higher  activities,  and  prob- 
ably in  a  greater  degree.     If  the  best  training  is 
that  which  most  nearly  accords  with  the  nature 
of  the  child,  the  argument  for  individual  train- 
ing is  strong. 

69.  It  does  not.     The  large  number  of  pupils 
for  each  teacher  renders  it  difficult  to  look  after 
the  individual.     Children  are  taught  en  masse, 
and  consequently  the  results  to  individuals  are 
often  unsatisfactory. 


PSYCHOLOGY   AND   PEDAGOGY.  441 

70.  To  quote  Colonel  Parker:  "  A  school  is  a 
community  ;  community  life  is  indispensable  to 
mental  and  moral  growth.     If  the  act  of  an  indi- 
vidual in  any  way  hinders  the  best  work  of  the 
community ,  he  is  in  the  wrong.     The  highest  duty 
of  the  individual  is  to  contribute  all  in  his  power 
to  the  best  good  of  all.     How  much  worse  shall 
these  be  in  the  school?    Just  enough  to  assist 
each  and  all  to  do  their  best  work.     How  quiet 
shall  it  be  ?    Just  enough  to  assist  each  and  all 
to  do  their  best  work.     How  much  whispering? 
Every  rule,  in  order  that  it  may  be  of  educative 
influence,  consists  in  carrying  out  this  motto, — 
'Everything  to  help,  and  nothing  to  hinder.'" 
From  the  above  it  would  seem  that  the  moral 
effect  of  training  in  classes  is  greater  than  the 
intellectual.      What  if  the  moral  tone  of  the 
school  is  not  high? 

71.  Under  present  conditions  the  arrangement 
of  pupils  in  grades  seems  a  necessity.     If  they 
were  ungraded,  and  the  number  as  large  as  at 
present,  it  would  result  in  confusion.     Then,  too, 
the  work  of  the   teacher  in  preparing  to  give 
instruction    on    many    subjects,    and    in    many 
branches  of  a  subject,  would  be  unbearable. 

72.  Grading  pupils  tends  to  turn  the  school  into 
a  machine,  to  lessen  freedom  in  learning,  to  fur- 
nish unworthy  incentives  to  study,  that  of  pass- 
ing into  the  next  grade  being  the  main  one  ;  also 
to   bring  about  undue  anxiety  and  worry  for 
fear  of  falling  short  of  requirements. 

73.  To  open  the  eyes  of  young  children  to  all 
about  them,  that  they  may  better  observe  and 


442          THE  NOEMAL  QUESTION  BOOK. 

be  interested  in  whatever  of  good  comes  into 
their  lives.  Dr.  Stanley  Hall  says:  "Graft  the 
soul  of  the  child  all  over  with  little  buds." 

74.  Teachers,  in  their  anxiety  to  be  thorough 
and  exhaustive,  do  not  adapt   the  quantity  of 
material    presented    to    the    capacity    of    their 
pupils.     They  forget  it    is  only  the  germs  of 
knowledge    which  the    youngest    are  fitted  to 
receive,  and  that  no  subject,  even  in  the  high 
school,  can,  with  profit,  be  treated  exhaustively. 

75.  Too  much  is  attempted.     Unlike  the  cur- 
riculum  of  the  lower  grade,  that  of  the  higher 
should    be  narrowed    to    fewer  subjects,    since 
there  should  be  some  approach  to  specialization 
in  the  high  school. 

76.  It  economizes  time,  and  aids  in  the  orderly 
prosecution  of  the  work.     It  leads  the  teacher 
to  give  some  definite  thought  to  the  lesson  be- 
fore it  is  presented. 

77.  To  arrange  the  various  exercises  so  as  to 
bring  rest  with  change.     Drawing,  for  instance, 
should  not  follow  writing,  nor  a  language  lesson 
a  reading  lesson,  nor  should  an  arithmetic  repro- 
duction follow  immediately  an  arithmetic  pres- 
entation.    There  should  also  be  a  change  from 
day  to  day  to  relieve  monotony.     Care  should 
also  be  taken  that  each  subject  receives  its  due 
share  of  time.     Observance  of  these  suggestions 
will  greatly  increase  interest. 

78.  Not  by  many  so-called  "  rules,"  nor  by  con- 
stant admonition,  but  by  securing  interest  in  the 
work  and  establishing  a  bond  of  sympathy  be- 
tween teacher  and  pupil. 


PSYCHOLOGY   AND   PEDAGOGY.  443 

79.  A  healthy  and  well-trained  body. 

80.  A  knowledge  of  the  mutual  relations  of 
mind  and  body. 

81.  It  is  not  only  the  instrument  of  mind,  but 
its  processes  enter  into  mental  processes  and 
results.     If  a  sense-organ  is  defective,  or  absent, 
the  corresponding  sensation  is  absent. 

82.  They  are  the  organs  of  the  will,  and  their 
culture  is  largely  the  culture  of  the  will. 

83.  That  every  mental  process  is  accompanied 
with  change  in  the  brain  centre. 

84.  That  there  must  be  some  system  of  physi- 
cal culture  to  train  the  body,  to  make  it  the  best 
medium  of  mind. 

85.  Temperature,  ventilation,  light,  heat,  pos- 
ture, and  proper  seating — that  is,  the  seat  and 
desk  should  be,  according  to  definite  measure- 
ments, suited  to  the  child. 

86.  Indirect  moral  training  is  given  by  the 
routine  and  work  of  the  school.     Punctuality, 
industry,  and  obedience  should  become  habits — 
after  ten  or  twelve  years  of  practice.     Fidelity 
to  work,  accuracy,  neatness,  precision,  in  fact 
nearly  all  the  more  active  virtues  permeate  the 
work  of  a  good  school.     The  personality  of  a 
noble  teacher  does  more  than  all  else. 

87.  As  conditions  are  at  the  present  day,  the 
indirect  training  is  not  sufficient  at  all   times. 
"  Line  upon  line,  and  precept  upon  precept" 
are  needed  in  many  cases. 

88.  It  was  confined  almost  entirely  to  a  study 
of  methods. 

89.  To    study    the    principles    that    underlie 


444  THE    NORMAL    QUESTION    BOOK. 

methods,  not  so  much  in  books  as  in  children. 
The  great  child-study,  movement  and  the  study  of 
adolescence  have  given  the  study  of  psychology 
an  impetus  never  before  felt,  and  this,  of  course, 
has  led  to  pedagogical  changes  and  discoveries. 

90.  No  great  discoveries  in  mental  phenomena 
have  been  made,  but  what  has  heretofore  been 
considered    meaningless    has   been  interpreted, 
and  a  new  and  better  pedagogy  has  arisen.     It 
has  been  instrumental  in  freeing  a  few  teachers, 
at  least,  from  the  thraldom  of  rigid  methods, 
and  in  arousing  greater  sympathy  for  children. 
It  has  added  much  to  the  science  of  education, 
inasmuch  as  it  has  called  attention  to  everything 
pertaining  to  a  child. 

91.  It  helps  the  teacher  to  see  at  what  stage  in 
the  development  of  his  pupils  the  various  sub- 
jects of  study  should  be  taken  up.     It  helps  him 
in  determining  how  much  pupils  can  learn.     It 
helps  in  deciding  how  much  work  can  be  safely 
required  of  pupils.     It  helps  in  discovering  the 
special  gifts  of  pupils.     (See  Gordy's  Psycho- 
logy.) 

92.  In  the  higher  grammar  grades  and  in  the 
high  school. 

93.  Before  the  child  is  able  to  infer  correct 
relations  between  subjects  of  study,  the  teacher 
must  make  them    for  him.     There  is   danger, 
when  there  is  a  different  teacher  for  each  sub- 
ject, that  this  correlation  will  not  be  made. 

94.  It  cultivates  observation,  trains  hand  and 
eye,   and    aids    memory.     It    may  also  aid    in 
esthetic  culture,  if  properly  taught. 


PSYCHOLOGY  AND  PEDAGOGY.          445 

95.  The  requirements  in  character  cannot  be 
overstated  in  the  ideal  teacher.     He  should  pos- 
sess good  health,  keen  intelligence,  lofty  am- 
bitions,   sympathy.      He    should    be    broadly 
educated,  refined,  and  sensitive.     Special  train- 
ing is  subordinate  to  the  above  qualities. 

96.  The  development  of  character. 


446          THE  NOUMAL  QUESTION  BOOK. 

TEST  PROBLEMS. 

PROMISCUOUSLY  ARRANGED 


1.  The  sum  of  two  numbers  is  12,  and  their  differ- 
ence is  equal  to  i  of  the  greater.     What  are  the  numbers  ? 

2.  A  farmer  made  a  mixture  of  barley,  oats    and 
peas,  using  two  bushels  of  barley  as  often  as  5  of  oats  and 
1  of  peas ;  the  whole  number  of  bushels  in  the  mixture 
was  32.     How  many  bushels  of  each  kind  did  he  use? 

3.  A  farm  rents  for  6  per  cent,  more  this  year  than 
last.    This  year  it  rents  for  $1,060.     What  was  the  rent 
last  year  ? 

4.  A  steamer  whose  regular  speed  is  twelve  miles  per 
hour  in  still  water,  can  make  a  trip  up  stream  in  7  hours 
and  down  in  5  hours.     At  what  rate  does  the  river  flow  ? 

5.  A  can  do  a  piece  of  work  in  6  days,  B  in  4  days. 
In  what  time  can  they  both  do  it,  working  together  ? 

6.  What  time  is  it  when  i  of  the  time  past  noon 
equals  %  of  the  time  to  midnight? 

7.  What  fraction  is  that  which  if  1  be  added  to  the 
numerator  the  fraction  will  be  i    but  if  1  be  added  to  the 
denominator  the  fraction  will  be  i  ? 

8.  Divide  the  number  n  into  two  such  parts  that  the 
greater,  increased  by  a,  shall  equal  the  less,  increased  by  b. 

9.  A  says  to  B :  "  Give  me  one  dollar  and  I  shall  have 
twice  as  much  money  as  you."    B  says  to  A  :    "No;  you 
give  me  one  dollar  and  I  shall  have  just  as  much  money 
as  you."    How  many  dollars  have  each  ? 

JO.  What  is  the  length  of  one  edge  of  that  cube  which 
contains  as  many  solid  units  as  there  are  linear  units  in 
the  diagonal  through  the  opposite  corners? 

11.  The  sum  of  two  numbers  is  100,  and  the  differ- 
ence of  their  square  roo's  is  2.     What  are  the  numbers  ? 

12.  What  number  is  that   consisting   of  two   digits, 
units  and  tens,  which  is  equal  to  three  times  the  sum  of 


TEST   PROBLEMS.  447 

its  digits,  and  if  45  be  added  to  the  number,  the  order  of 
the  digits  will  be  reversed  ? 

13.  James  is  £  as  old  as  John;  5  years  ago  he  was  ^  as 
old  ;  how  old  are  each  ? 

14.  What  two  numbers  are  those  whose  product  is 
36,  and  the  difference  of  their  squares  is  65  ? 

15.  Divide  the  number  2000  into  two  such  parts  that 
the  greater  shall  be  to  the  less  as  9  to  7. 

16.  There  is  a  fish  whose  head  is  9  in.  long  ;  the  tail  is 
as  long  as  the  head  and  £  the  body  ;  and  the  body  is  as 
long  as  the  head  and  tail  together.     What  is  the  length 
of  the  fish  ? 

17.  A  shepherd  was  met  by  a  band  of  robbers  who 

E hindered  him  of  i  of  his  flock  and  i  of  a  sheep  over  ; 
e  afterwards    met    a   second   band  who  took  i  of  the 
remainder  and  i  of  a  sheep  over  ;  and  a  third  band  took 
i  of  the  last  remainder  and  i  of  a  sheep  over,  when  he 
had  but  25  sheep  left.     How  many  sheep  had  he  at  first  ? 

18.  Simplify  (^+/b-)(/a--/F-). 

(/a    +/b~)(/a   — /b   ) 

19.  A  tree  80  feet  high  is  broken  during  a  storm;  the 
upper  part  clinging  to  the  stump  strikes  the  ground  40 
feet  from  the  foot  of  the  tree.     How  long  is  each  part  ? 

20.  A  picture  12  feet  by  18  feet  is  set  in  a  frame  of 
uniform  width  containing  the  same  area  as  the  picture. 
What  is  the  width  of  frame  ? 

21.  To  find  the  area  of  a  scalene  triangle  whose  sides 
are  a,  b,  and  c. 

22.  How  are  the  above  problems  solved  arithmetically  ? 

23.  How  many  strokes  do  the  clocks  of  Venice,  which 
go  on  to  24  o'clock,  strike  in  a  day  ? 

24.  A  company  of  travelers  at  a  hotel  incurred  a  bill 
of  $12.     If  there  had    been   two  more  in  the  company 
each  would  have  been  charged  30  cents  less.    How  many 
were  there  in  the  company? 

25.  The  sum  of   three  numbers  in  arithmetical  pro- 
gression is  27,  and  the  product  of  the  extremes  is  77. 
What  are  the  numbers  ? 

26.  A  tract  of  land  in  the  form  of  a  square  is  sur- 
rounded by  a  board  fence,  four  boards  high,  each  board 
16$  feet  long  ;  the  number  of  acres  in  the  tract  equals  the 
number  of  boards  in  the  fence.     How  many  acres  of  land 
are  there  ? 

27-  A  boy  being  asked  how  many  fish  he  had, 


448  THE    NORMAL    QUESTION    BOOK. 

11  fish  are  7  fish  more  than  f  of  the  number.     How  many 
had  he  ? 

28.  A  man  purchased  a  house  with  10  doors,  giving  $1 
for  the  first  door,  $2  for  the  second,  $4  for  the  third,  and 
so  on.     What  did  the  house  cost  him  ? 

29.  A  man  holds  an  endowment  policy  payable  in  30 
years,  and  £  of  the  time  past  equals  i  of  the  time  to  come. 
How  much  time  has  past? 

30.  One  kind  of  wine  is  40  cents  a  quart,  and  another 
24  cents.     How  much  of  each  must  be  taken  to  make  a 
quart  worth  28  cents  ? 

31.  A  farmer  has  two  flocks  of  sheep,  each  containing 
the  same  number.     From  one  he  sells  39  and  from  the 
other  93,  and  then  finds  just  twice  as  many  in  one  flock  as 
in  the  other.     How  many  did  each  flock  originally  con- 
tain? 

32.  A  man  being  asked  his  age,  replied  :  If  to  my  age 
you  add  its  half,  and  third,  and  then  deduct  10,  the  result 
is  100.     What  was  his  age? 

33.  A  merchant  has  sugar  at  9  cents  and  13  cents  a 
pound,  and  he-  wishes  to  make  a  mixture  of  100  pounds 
that  shall  be  worth  12  cents  a  pound.    How  many  pounds 
of  each  quality  must  be  taken  ? 

34.  A  man  was  hired  for  a  year  for  $100  and  a  suit  of 
clothes  ;  but  at  the  end  of  8  months  he  left,  and  received 
his  clothes  and  $60  in  money.     What  was  the  value  of 
the  suit  of  clothes  ? 

35.  Determine  the  5th  root  of  31152784.1  by  means  of 
logarithms,  knowing  that  the  logarithm  of  31152784.1= 
7.493497. 

36.  A  man  sold  a  horse  for  $420,  thereby  gaining  25 
per  cent.     What  was  the  cost  of  the  horse  ? 

37.  Two  men  commenced   trade  together.     The  first 
put  in  $40  more  than  the  second  ;  and  the  stock  of  the 
first  was  to  the  stock  of  the  second  as  5  to  4.    What  was 
the  stock  of  each  ? 

38.  A  man  traveled  36  miles  in  a  certain  number  of 
hours ;  if  he  had  traveled  one  mile  more  per  hour  he 
would  have  required  3  hours  less  to  perform  his  journey. 
How  many  miles  did  he  travel  per  hour? 

39.  A  person  after  spending  $100  more  than  -J  of  his 
income,  had  remaining  $35  more  than  J  pf  it.     What  was 
his  income  ? 

40.  A  boy  engaged  to  carry  100  glass  vessels  to  a 
certain  place,  and  to  receive  3  f*wlft  lot  every  one  he  de- 


TEST  PROBLEMS.  449 

livered,  and  to  forfeit  9  cents  for  every  one  he  broke.  On 
settlement  he  received  240  cents.  How  many  did  he 
break? 

41.  The  shadow  of  a  tree  measures  42  feet ;  a  staff  40 
inches  long  casts  a  shadow  18  inches  at  the  same  time. 
What  is  the  height  of  the  tree? 

42.  Divide  8360  in  the  proportion  of  2,  3,  and  4. 

43.  What  is  the  length  of  the  sides  of  a  rectangular 
field  whose  length  is  3  ti  mes  its  breadth  and  contains  an 
area  of  10,800  square  rods  ? 

44.  If  6  oranges  and  7  lemons  cost  33  cents  and  12 
oranges  and   10  lemons  cost  54  cents,  what  is  the  price  of 
one  of  each  ? 

45.  Divide  the  number  20  into  two  such  parts  that  the 
product  of  their  squares  shall  equal  9216. 

PROBLEMS   OF   PURSUIT. 

46.  A  sets  out  from  a  certain  place  and  travels  at  the 
rate  of  7  miles  in  5  hours  ;  and  8  hours  afterwards  B  sets 
out  from  the  same  place,  in  pursuit,  at  the  rate  of  5  miles 
in  3  hours.     How  long  before  B  will  overtake  A  ? 

47.  The  hour  and  minute  hands  of  a  clock  are  together 
at  12  o'clock.     When  are  they  next  together? 

48.  At  what  time  between  2  and   3  o'clock  will  the 
hour  and  minute  hands  of  a  clock  be  together? 

49.  What  time  between  2  and  3  o'clock  will  the  hour 
and  minute  hands  be  at  right  angles  to  each  other  ? 

50.  At  what  time  between  5  and  6  o'clock  will  the  two 
hands  of  a  clock  be  in  the  same  straight  line  ? 


450          THE  NORMAL  QUESTION  BOOK. 

STATEMENTS  AND  ANSWERS 
TO  PROBLEMS. 


1.  The  half  sum  of  two  numbers  plus  the  half  differ- 
ence equals  the  greater. 

The  half  sum  minus  the  half  difference  equals  the  less. 
Let  2x=difference. 
6+x=greater. 
6 — x— less. 
2x=6+x 

3      Ans.    Greater  7-^.    Less  4f . 

2.  Let  x=No.  bushels  peas. 

2£=No.  bushels  barley. 
5x=No.  bushels  oats. 

8x=32.    Ans.    4  bushels  peas,  8  bushels  barley, 
20  bushels  oats. 

3.  Let  x=rent  last  year. 

Ans.   $1,000. 


100 

4.  Let  x=rate  of  river. 

Then  7(12— x)=5(12+x).    Ans.    2  hours. 

5.  Let  x=time  required  by  both. 
Then  x       x 

6       4 

6.  Let  x=time  past  noon. 
12 — x— time  to  midnight. 

Then  x  _12— x       ,         H  lf       t  4  0>clock 

—  =^=  — •     -TlTlo.        Xlctll    Udiou    TC    U  OlULJx 

3          5 

7.  Let  x=numerator  of  fraction. 

y=denominator. 

Thenx+L,iand" 

y 

447 


TEST   PROBLEMS.  45l 

8.  Let  x=greater  ;  n  —  x=less. 
Then  x+a=(n—  x)+b. 

Ans.    Greater  ?d^=?  less 

2 

9.  Let  x=A's  money  ;  y=B's  money. 
Then  x+l=2(y—  1)  and  x—  l=y+l. 

Ans.    A's=87.    B's=$5. 

10.  Let  x=length  of  edge. 
/3x2  =the  diagonal. 

_  4  _ 

x3=/3x2.    Ans.     /3. 

11.  Let  x=greater  ;  y=less 

Then  x+y=100  and  /IF—  /~y~=2. 

Square  second  equation  and  subtract.    -4ns.    64  and  36. 

12.  The  local  value  of  the  digit  in  ten's  place  being  ten 
times  that  in  unit's  place,  if  we  let  x=units  and  y=tens 
the  number  will  be  lOy+x.    Then  10y+x=3(x+y)  and 
10y+x+45=10x+y.    Ans.    27. 

13.  Let  x=  James'  age  ;  y=  John's  age. 

Then  x^y   and  x_5=y-5  ^    James  10,  John  30. 
o  o 

14.  Let  x=one  number  and  y  the  other. 
Then  xy=36  ?.nd  x2—  y2=65. 

Find  value  of  x2  in  each  equation  and  compare. 

-4ns.    9  and  4. 

15.  Let  x=greater  number  and  y  the  less. 
Then  x+y=2000  and  x:y  ::9:7  or  9y=7x. 
Multiply  first  equation  through  by  7  and  subtract. 

Ans.    1125  and  875. 

16.  Let  x=length  of  body  and  9-Hx=length  of  tail. 
Then  9+9+£x=x,  or  x=18+£x.    ^4ns.    72  inches. 

17.  Let  12x=number  he  had  at  first. 

9x  —  i=first  remainder. 
6x  —  Jr=second  remainder. 
3x  —  f=third  remainder. 
3x—  1=25.    Ans.     103. 

18.  In  both  numerator  and  denominator  we  have  the 
product  of  the  sum  and  difference  of  two  quantities.   Ans. 


19.   Let  x=upper  part  and  80  —  x=lower  part. 

Then  x2—  422=(80—  x)2.    4ns.    Upper   part   50 
feet.    Lower  30  feet. 


452  THE    NORMAL    QUESTION   BOOK. 

20.  Let  x=width  of  frame. 
Then  24x+36x+4x2=216. 
Transpose,  unite  and  complete  the  square. 

Ans.     3  inches. 

21.  From  the  vertical  angle  let  fall  a  perpendicular  to 
the  base  b. 

Let  x=the  segment  adjacent  to  the  side  c  ; 

b  —  x=the  segment  adjacent  to  the  side  a  ; 
•  Then  will  c2  —  x2—  perpendicular. 

Also  a2  —  (b  —  x)2=r  perpendicular. 

Then  will  c2—  x2=a2—  (b—  x)2. 

After  finding  the  perpendicular  multiply  the  base 
b,  by  £  the  perpendicular. 

22.  Add  the  three  sides  and  divide  this  sum  by  2. 
Subtract  each  side  separately  from  the  half  sum.     Multi- 
ply the  several  remainders  and  the  half  sum  togetner  and 
determine  the  square  root  of  the  result. 

23.  s= 


24.   Let  x=number  in  the  company. 


x  x+2 

Divide  both  members  by  30.    Clear  of  fractions 
and  complete  the  square.    Ans.     8. 

25.  The  formulas  will  not  apply  in  this  problem  so  let 
y=common  difference. 

Then  x  —  y=first  ;  x=second,  and  x+y=third. 
3x=27,  x=9,  x2—  y2=77.    Ans.    7,  9,  11. 

26.  Let  x=side  of  the  square  in  rods. 

—  -  =number  of  acres. 
160 

16x=number  of  boards,  each  board  being  16£  feet 

or  1  rod  long.     Then—  =16x. 

160 
After  finding  x,  square  it  and  divide  by  260. 

27.  Let  x=the  number.  Ans~ 
Thenf+7=ll.    Ans.    10. 

28.  tar"-1,  I=lx29  . 

Substitute  1  in  s=r 


29.   Let  x=time  passed  ;  30  —  x=time  to  come. 
x  _,30—  x  . 

2          4        -4ns.     10  years, 


TEST   PROBLEMS.  453 

30.  Let  x=the  amount  required  at  40  cents 
and  y=the  amount  required  at  24  cents. 
Then  x+y=l  and  40x+24y=28. 

Ans.     i  at  40  cents,  and  I  at  24  cents. 

31.  Let  x=original  number  in  each  flock. 
Then  x—  39=2(x—  93).    Am.    147. 

32.  Let  x=his  age. 

Then  x+-|+|-10=100.      ^     eo  years  old 


33.  Let  x=number  of  pounds  at  9  cents 
and  y=number  of  pounds  at  13  cents. 
Then  x+y=100,  and  9x+13y  =1,200. 

Ans.    25  Ibs.  at  9c.,  and  75  Ibs.  at  13c. 

34.  Let  x=value  of  clothes. 
Then  100+x_6Q+x. 

12  8  Ans.    $20. 

35.  7.493497-5=1.498699,   and  by   reference   to  the 
table  of  logarithms  1.498699  is  the  logarithm  of  31.52. 

36.  Let  x=cost  of  horse.  AnSt    31'52* 
Then  x+g=420. 

37.  Let  x=what  the  first  put  in. 
Then  x  —  40=what  second  put  in. 

Then  x  :x—  40  :  :5  :4.    Ans.    $200,  and  $160. 

38.  Let  x=number  of  miles  traveled  per  hour. 

rm,         36        o  36 

Then--      =^Y    Ans.    Smiles. 

39.  Let  x  =his  income. 

450. 


40.  Let  x=number  he  broke,  and 
100  —  x=number  he  delivered. 
Then  3x—  9(100—  x)=240.    Ans.    5. 

41.  Let  x=height  of  the  tree. 

Then42:J|::x:g.    A^    ^  ^ 

42.  Let  2x=first  ;  3x=second  and  4x=third. 
Then  9x=360.    Ans.    $80,  $20,  $160. 

43.  Let  x=length,  and  3x  the  breadth. 

Then  3x2=10,800.      Ans.    Length  180,  breadth  60. 

44.  Let  x=price  of  one  orange,  and  y=price  of  a  lemon. 
Then  6x+7y=33  and  12x+10y=54. 

Ans.     Oranges  2  cents  ;  lemons  3  cents. 


454  THE    NORMAL    QUESTION    BOOK. 

45.  Let  x=tne  greater  and  y=the  less. 
Then  x+y±=20  and  x2y2=9216. 

Determine  the  square  root  of  both  members  of  the 
second  equation  and  compare  with  the  first.  Ans.  12 
and  8. 

46.  Let  x=number  of  hours  before  B  will  overtake  A. 

Then  b~— 7~f=~.   Ans.    42  hours, 
o       5       5 

47.  Let  x=distance  traveled  by  hour  hand. 

12x= distance  traveled  by  minute  hand. 
There  being  12  spaces  for  the  minute  hand  to  gain  on 
the  hour  hand,  12x — x=12.    Ans.   1  hour,  5  min.,  27-ft-  sec. 

48.  Let  x=distance  traveled  by  hour  hand. 

12x=distance  traveled  by  minute  hand. 
The  minute  hand  must  gain  two  revolutions  on  the 
hour  hand. 

Then  12x— x=24.    Ans.    2  hours,  10  min.,  54^  sec. 

49.  Let  x=distance  traveled  by  hour  hand. 

12x=distance  traveled  by  minute  hand. 

After  the  hands  are  together  between  2  and  3  o'clock, 
the  minute  hand  must  gain  three  more  spaces  on  the  hour 
hand. 

Then  12x— x=27.    Ans.    2  hours,  27  min.,  16T4T  sec. 

50.  Let  x=distance  traveled  by  hour  hand. 

12xi=distance  traveled  by  minute  hand. 
Here  5  revolutions  and  six  spaces  must  be  gained. 
Then  12x— x=66.    Ans,    6  o'clock. 


APPENDIX. 


APPENDIX.  457 


RULES 

TO  BE  OBSERVED  AT  EXAMINATIONS 


CONTRIBUTED  BY  G.   DALLAS  LIND. 


1.  Of  course  the  teacher  should  always  keep  his  person  as  neat 
and  clean  as  possible,  and  dress,  not  foppishly,  not  necessarily  in 
costly  clothes,  but  neatly,  plainly  and  as  well  as  his  circumstances 
will  justify.     There  are  times  when  the  teacher,  like  other  persons, 
may  become  careless  of  dress  and  appearance,  but  that  time  should 
not  be  when  he  goes  to  Examination.     Horace  Greeley  was  care- 
less in  dress  and  Henry  Clay  Dean  is  as  filthy  as  a  man  can  well 
be,  but  we  should  copy  the  good  points  and  not  the  faults  of  great 
men.     A  generous  use  of  soap  and  water  and  attention  to  the  "  real 
estate "  which  is  apt  to  accumulate  under  the  finger  nails  are 
points  worthy  of  the  teacher's  notice.     We  were  not  all  born  with 
the  brain  of  a  Greeley,  and  therefore  need  other  means  to  aid  us 
through  the  world. 

2.  Be  on  hand  early.     Better  too  early  than  too  late.     Prompt- 
ness is  one  of  the  unfailing  signs  of  a  good  teacher.     Some  per- 
sons are  always  late,  late  to  rise  in  the  morning,  late  to  bed  at 
night,  late  to  school,  late  to  church  and   Sabbath-school,  and 
would  be  late  at  their  own   funerals  if  they  were  not  carried 
against  their  will.     The  teacher  should  not  belong  to  this  class. 
Show  by  your  promptness  at  Examinations  what  you  will  prob- 
ably be  at  your  school.     Learn  a  lesson  from  the  man  who  missed 
the  morning  train. 

3.  Keep  cool.     If  you  get  excited  you  can  not  tell  half  you 
know.     Never  think  of  the  outcome  of  your  work,  but  think  only 
ot  what  you  are  to  do  at  the  present  moment,  knowing,  that  the 
outcome  will  depend  entirely  upon  how  well  you  perform  each 
step.     Do  the  best  you  can,  and  do  not  worry  about  the  rest    Ex^ 


458  APPENDIX. 

eitement  will  spoil  many  an  answer,  and  you  will  say  many  things 
you  do  not  believe  and  would  not  say  in  calmer  moments.  Your 
memory  will  forsake  you,  and  you  will  not  be  able  to  recall  the 
name  of  your  grandmother  if  you  are  scared. 

4.  Obey  strictly  the  rules  of  the  Examination.    If  you  are  seen 
to  whisper  to  another  or  violate  any  of  the  rules  laid  down  for 
you,  it  will  be  taken  as  evidence  that  you  are  trying  to  practice 
fraud,  though  your  intentions  may  be  far  from  any  such  thing. 
Above  all  things  do  not  be  tempted  to  use  any  unfair  means,  what- 
ever.   Your  work  is  expected  to  show  honestly  what  you  are  capa- 
ble of  doing,  and  nothing  more.     Do  not  give  the  Examiner  any 
ground  for  suspicion  in  this  respect. 

5.  Write  legibly.    No  one  cares  about  puzzling  his  brains  and 
wasting  his  time  over  hieroglyphics  that  look  like  antediluvian 
bird  tracks,  and  when  deciphered  possess  no  ethnological  interest 
whatever.    It  was  no  credit  to  Horace  Greeley  that  there  was  but 
one  man  in  the  United  States  who  could  read  his  manuscript. 
One  should  cultivate  the  power  of  writing  rapidly,  yet  plain. 

6.  Be  very  careful  about  the  use  of  capital  letters,  spelling  and 
punctuation.     A  great  many  of  the  errors  in  this  respect  are  made 
through  carelessness,  slips  of  the  pen,  which  may  be  avoided. 
When  you  have  finished  a  subject,  examine  your  work  carefully 
and  you  will  be  very  apt  to  find  some  errors. 

7.  Be  careful  about  the  neatness  of  your  manuscript.    £lots  and 
finger  marks  do  not  speak  well  for  any  one. 

8.  Confine  your  mind  as  closely  as  possible  to  your  work.     Do 
not  let  it  wander  off  upon  other  subjects.     This  is  one  of  the  qual- 
ities of  genius,  to  be  able  to  concentrate  the  mind  upon  one  point- 
until  it  is  elaborated.    Yet  do  not  present  the  appearance  of  being 
puzzled  or  weary.      Sit  still  and  work  calmly  and  quietly,  as 
though  you  knew  perfectly  what  you  were  about.      Do  not  be 
caught  twirling  your  hair  with  your  fingers,  drumming  on  thr 
table,  or  with  your  head  resting  on  your  hand. 

9.  If  you  are  allotted  a  certain  time  on  each  branch,  occupy 
all  the  time  given  you.    If  you  get  through  before  the  time  is  up, 
review  your  work  critically,  making  such  corrections  and  addi- 
tions as  you  may  find  necessary.     There  is  much  to  be  gained  by 
a  critical  study  of  your  own  productions. 

10.  Do  not  guess  at  the  answer  of  a  question.    "  Guess  work  is 
as  good  as  any  when  it  hits,"  is  the  saying,  but  it  rarely  ever  hits, 
and  you  would  better  leave  the  paper  blank  than  return  it  filled 


APPENDIX.  459 

with  guesses,  even  though  some  of  them  may  hit  the  mark.    It  is 
a  bad  habit  to  get  into,  that  of  guessing  at  things. 

11.  Write  out  as  much  as  possible  of  your  work.     If  you  can 
tell  what  you  know  clearly  and  briefly,  in  writing,  it  is  a  mark  of 
ability.     But  do  not  be  verbose.     Tell  what  you  have  to  tell  in  as 
few  words  as  consistent  with  clearness.     Be  pointed  in  all  answers 
to  questions.     Avoid  ambiguity  of  expression.    Use  short  sen- 
tences.   Write  upon  the  question  before  you  and  upon  nothing  else, 

12.  As  far  as  possible,  write  the  answer  to  each  question  on  a  sep- 
arate slip  of  paper,  so  that  you  can  arrange  the  answers  in  order 
when  you  have  finished.    If  your  paper  is  in  large  sheets  better  tear 
in  smaller  slips.     When  you  have  arranged  them  in  order,  number 
the  pages  and  fasten  them  together  at  the  top.     Write  upon  one 
side  of  the  paper  only. 

13.  On  receiving  your  paper  of  questions,  read  it  over  carefully. 
Take  the  easiest  question  first  and  write  the  answer,  then  the  next 
easiest,  leaving  the  most  difficult  until  the  last.    The  hardest  may 
come  first  on  the  paper,  and  the  candidate  spend  the  whole  of  his 
time  puzzling  over  it,  or  until  he  gets  nervous  and  frightened, 
when  he  will  not  be  able  to  answer  the  others,  although  they  may 
all  be  easy. 

14.  In  exercises  in  Grammar,  write  out  the  parsing  or  analysis 
in  full,  abbreviating  terms  only.     For  example,  in  the  sentence 
l<  Mary  milks  the  cow,"  parse  cow  thus :    Cow,  n.,  com.,  3rd,  sing., 
fern.,  obj.,  object  of  v.  milks.     K.,  A  noun  or  pronoun,  etc. 

In  Arithmetic,  write  out  the  analysis  of  examples  clearly,  giv- 
ing your  full  work  on  the  same  paper.  You  will  be  judged  not 
so  much  by  the  correctness  of  your  final  result  as  you  will  by 
the  process  you  used  to  obtain  it.  If  your  analysis  be  correct,  a 
mistake  in  the  figures  affecting  the  final  result  will  not  be  of  so 
much  consequence. 

15.  Do  not  study  too  much  the  week  previous  to  the  Examina- 
tion.   If  you  tax  your  mind  too  much,  you  will  not  have  the  clear- 
ness of  perception  and  mental  power  you  would  otherwise  have. 
Especially  do  not  sit  up  late  the  night  before  to  study.   Go  to  bed 
early,  and  think  as  little  as  possible  about  the  work  of  the  morrow. 

16.  Eat  a  light  supper  the  night  before,  and  your  sleep  will  be 
sounder  and  you  will  have  fewer  dreams,  and  consequently  you 
will  rise  more  refreshed  and  better  able  to  cope  with  intellectual 
problems.     Eat  lightly  at  breakfast  and  dinner  on  Examination 
day.     It  would  be  well  to  observe  this  rule  through  life. 


460  APPENDIX. 


HINTS 

ON  THE  PREPARATION  OF  MANUSCRIPT^ 


CONTRIBUTED  BY  G.   DALLAS  LIND. 


There  are  comparatively  few  persons  who  know  how  to  write  a 
letter,  and  a  still  less  number  who  know  how  to  write  an  article  for 
the  press.  Postmasters  are  aware  of  the  fact  that  few  know  how 
to  address  a  letter  properly,  and  editors  and  publishers  are  pain- 
fully aware  that  few  know  how  to  prepare  a  manuscript  for  pub- 
lication. It  is  humiliating,  but  true,  that  a  large  proportion  of 
our  teachers  are  remarkably  deficient  in  such  knowledge.  It  is 
something  strange,  for  the  means  of  instruction  are  not  wanting. 
Perhaps  it  is  because  there  are  few  text-books  which  give  the  re- 
quired information  in  a  tangible  and  connected  form.  All  gram- 
mars give  the  rules  for  capital  letters.  Spelling  is  taught  from 
infancy  up.  Rules  for  punctuation  are  given  in  grammars.  Yet 
in  these  three  points  do  all  most  err.  Works  on  rhetoric  give  the 
necessary  information  in  regard  to  arrangement,  style,  etc.,  but  the 
ordinary  teacher  does  not  always  make  use  of  such  a  text-book. 
Perhaps  the  greatest  reason  for  this  ignorance,  is  the  lack  of  a 
feeling  of  the  importance  which  should  be  attached  to  the  subject. 
Too  many  scarcely  ever  devote  a  moment's  thought  to  the  matter. 
They  write  their  letters  and  never  read  them  over  to  see  how  they 
look.  The  teacher  should  make  it  a  point  in  common  schools  and 
primary  schools,  generally  to  teach  the  use  of  the  period  and  cap. 
ital  letters.  This  much  can  be  taught  to  very  young  children. 
As  they  grow  older  and  are  able  to  wield  the  pen  with  some  de- 
gree of  facility,  they  can  learn,  and  pains  should  be  taken  to  teach 
them,  to  properly  address  a  letter,  fold,  address  and  sign  the  name. 

Frequent  exercises  should  be  given  in  writing  sentences  and 
words,  until  they  become  as  familiar  with  the  appearance  of  words 


APPENDIX.  461 

and  sentences  In  manuscript  as  they  are  with  the  alphabet.  Were 
teachers  more  interested  in  this  branch  of  learning,  there  would 
be  less  ignorance  among  the  masses  in  this  respect. 

We  append  a  few  rules,  which,  if  followed,  will  be  of  benefit  to 
the  tyro  in  this  branch : 

1.  In  writing  any  kind  of  a  manuscript  which  you  expect  other 
eyes  to  read,  whether  a  letter  of  friendship  or  business,  an  article 
for  the  press,  or  any  matter  you  wish  to  preserve,  use  a  pen  and 
black  ink  and  white  or  light-colored  paper.    It  is  a  kind  of  insult 
to  write  to  a  person  with  a  pencil,  and  most  articles  sent  to  the 
press  so  written,  go  to  the  waste  basket. 

2.  Learn  to  write  in  straight  lines  without  ruling.    All  paper 
would  be  better  if  made  without  being  ruled.     The  eye  should  be 
trained  to  guide  the  hand  straight  across  the  page  without  the  aid 
of  ruled  lines.    They  only  mar  the  beauty  of  a  written  page.    The 
custom  of  writing  on  ruled  paper  has  spoiled  most  persons,  so  that 
when  they  come  to  address  an  envelope  where  there  are  no  ruled 
lines,  they  are  sure  to  go  crooked. 

3.  Of  course  you  should  spell  every  word  correctly.    It  is  best 
for  beginners  to  have  a  dictionary  by  their  side  when  writing,  and 
every  word  about  which  there  is  a  doubt,  should  be  looked  up.   It 
should  be  made  an  unpardonable  sin  to  misspell  words  in  compo- 
sition, when  there  are  so  many  dictionaries  in  the  land.    Study 
the  rules  for  the  use  of  capital  letters.    They  are  very  simple,  and 
no  one  who  pretends  to  any  learning,  or  to  teach,  should  be  ignor- 
ant of  them.    When  you  have  written  a  sentence  read  it  over  and 
see  that  you  have  made  no  slips  of  the  pen.    These  are  very  com- 
mon, such  as  omitting  one  of  the  final  letters  of  a  word  or  adding 
a  letter  to  a  word,  omitting  one  of  the  letters  when  they  are  doub- 
led, etc.    Not  only  read  over  each  sentence  as  you  write  it,  but 
read  the  composition  over  one  or  more  times  when  you  are  through. 
It  is  a  good  habit,  one  we  have  been  accustomed  to  for  a  long 
time,  to  read  over  every  paragraph,  as  soon  as  written,  then  every 
page  or  a  number  of  paragraphs  together.    You  are  sure  to  find 
some  errors  in  this  way,  not  only  slips  of  the  pen,  but  errors  in 
spelling,  capitalization,  punctuation,  grammar,  etc.    Get  into  the 
habit  of  criticising  your  own  work. 

4.  In  regard  to  punctuation,  little  need  be  said.    It  is  easy  to 
learn  the  use  of  the  principal  point,  the  period.     Never  use  long 
sentences.    Short  sentences  are  easily  managed ;  long  ones  are  not. 
There  is  scarcely  any  use  for  the  semicolon  and  colon.     The  use 


462  APPENDIX. 

of  the  comma  is  somewhat  arbitrary.  The  most  common  uses, 
however,  should  not  be  neglected.  Between  the  terms  of  a  closely- 
related  series,  or  wherever  the  connective  is  omitted,  or  in  general* 
wherever  any  word  is  omitted,  there  should  be  a  comma.  Terms 
which  are  contrasted  should  be  separated  by  a  comma,  also  words 
used  independently  should  be  set  off  by  commas.  The  uses  of  the 
exclamation  and  interrogation  points  are  sufficiently  obvious. 

Never  divide  a  syllable  at  the  end  of  the  line,  and  place  a  hyphen 
after  a  syllable  at  the  end  of  the  line  when  the  remainder  of  the 
word  is  carried  to  the  next  line.  For  the  use  of  the  hyphen  in 
compound  words,  you  must  go  to  the  dictionary.  Underscore 
•every  word  you  wish  printed  in  italics,  with  two  lines  if  in  small 
capitals,  three  lines  if  in  large  capitals. 

5.  In  commencing  a  manuscript,  begin  the  first  line  an  inch  or 
loore  from  the  margin  of  the  paper.    Every  other  line  in  the  same 
paragraph  should  commence  nearer  the  margin  of  the  paper  and 
should  be  kept  as  nearly  even  as  possible. 

You  can  use  your  own  judgment  about  paragraphing.  You 
may  put  more  than  one  subject  in  the  same  paragraph,  but  it  is 
not  best  to  make  a  new  paragraph  where  the  sense  is  closely  con- 
nected. 

6.  It  is  not  a  good  idea  to  write  and  then  copy,  except  for  very 
young  beginners.     It  is  best  to  form  a  habit  at  once  of  writing 
correctly,  and  of  so  analyzing  and  arranging  your  subject  in  the 
mind  that  you  may  write  it  but  once.    You  are  almost  as  apt  to 
make  mistakes  in  copying,  and  the  time  is  lost.    If  the  composi- 
tion is  to  be  an  essay,  or  any  other  species  of  writing,  except  an 
ordinary  letter  it  is  well  to  make  an  outline  first,  a  kind  of  skele- 
ton, which  you  can  elaborate  and  clothe  at  your  will. 

7.  If  you  have  made  a  mistake  in  spelling,  correct,  when  possi- 
ble, without  rewriting  the  word.     If  it  is  a  letter  or  letters  omit- 
ted supply  them  in  the  line  above,  using  a  caret  to  show  where 
they  should  be  inserted.    If  a  letter  is  not  needed  strike  it  out  by 
drawing  a  slanting  line  through  it.     If  the  word  can  not  be  cor- 
rected in  this  way,  or  if  the  wrong  word  is  used,  draw  your  pen 
through  it  horizontally  and  rewrite  it  in  the  space  above,  or  after 
the  word  if  the  mistake  is  discovered  in  time. 

8.  If  writing  for  publication,  write  on  one  side  of  the  paper 
only.    It  is  best  to  use  small  half  sheets  about  the  size  of  commer- 
cial note  paper.    Observe  rules  5  and  7  of  "  Kules  to  be  observed 
at  Examinations"  (p.  428).     Be  especially  particular  to  write 


APPENDIX.  463 

proper  names  legibly.  The  proof  reader  has  no  means  of  finding 
out  whether  you  mean  "  Mr.  Baker,"  "  Mr.  Barker,"  or  "  Mr.  Bun- 
ker." He  may  guess  from  the  connection  what  other  words,  badly 
written,  are,  but  proper  names  he  can  tell  nothing  about.  Always 
send  your  own  name  with  the  MS.,  not  necessarily  for  publication, 
but  the  editor  must  know  who  is  responsible  for  the  composition. 

9.  In  writing  a  business  letter  be  brief  and  pointed,  yet  use 
words  enough  to  make  your  meaning  plain.     Come  at  once  to  the 
point  without  any  preliminary  remarks.     If  an  order  for  goods, 
be  careful  to  make  figures  plain,  and  always  give  your  full  name, 
postoffice,  county  and  state,  and  number  of  house  and  street,  if  in  a 
city.     Observe  the  same  rule  in  addressing  the  letter.     It  is  best, 
generally,  where  sums  of   money   are   mentioned,  to   write   the 
amount  in  words  and  figures  both,  enclosing  the  figures  in  a  pa- 
renthesis. 

10.  As  a  general  rule  in  writing,  use  common  words  and  such 
as  convey  your  meaning  best.    If  you  have  a  natural  talent  for 
word  painting  and  can  use  flowery  and  ornate  language,  remem- 
ber that  it  is  all  out  of  place  in  any  kind  of  business  correspond- 
ence.    If  you  wish  to  let  your  Pegasus  fly,  take  the  opportunity  to 
do  so,  when  you  write  to  some  indulgent  friend  or  write  a  love- 
letter.     The  more  Anglo-Saxon  terms  you  use  the  better.     Avoid 
Latin  and  French  phrases  as  much  as  possible.    In  writing  an 
essay  upon  any  subject,  arrange  your  matter  in  the  form  of  an  out- 
line, as  suggested  in  rule  6,  saying  all  you  wish  to  under  each 
head  before  commencing  another.     In  letter  writing,  however,  you 
are  at  liberty  to  say  whatever  comes  first  to  your  mind.    A  letter 
of  friendship  may  be  something  as  you  would  talk  to  your  corre- 
spondent if  he  were  present. 

11.  To  fold  a  sheet  to  go  into  an  envelope  you  must  be  guided,  of 
course,  by  the  size  of  your  sheet  and  envelope;  but,  for  example, 
take  the  ordinary  commercial  note  paper  and  the  common  busi- 
ness envelope,  and  you  will  fold  it  thus :    Turn  the  bottom  of  the 
sheet  up  one-third  of  the  way,  then  turn  the  top  third  down  over 
the  bottom  and  middle  thirds,  thus  making  three  folds,  and  you 
will  find  it  not  only  conveniently  fit  the  envelope,  but  come  ex- 
actly to  the  hand  of  the  opener  of  the  letter. 

12.  In  addressing  an  envelope,  never  get  above  the  median  line, 
commencing  the  name  near  enough  the  left  margin  to  get  all  the 
name  and  title  on  the  same  line.     Never  commit  the  unpardonable 

28 


464  APPENDIX. 

offense  of  getting  a  person's  name  or  name  And  title  on  different 
lines. 

Your  envelope  when  directed  should  look  something  like  the 
following : 


STAMP. 


MR.  JOHH  SMITH, 

DANVILLE, 

HEHDEICKS  Co.  IND. 


APPENDIX.  465 


PROGRAMME 


CONTRIBUTED  BY  P.  P.   ADAMS. 

Every  man,  in  whatever  line  of  business,  should  work  by  a 
programme.  In  consideration  of  the  importance  of  the  teacher's 
work  and  the  vast  amount  to  be  done  in  so  short  a  time,  the  neces- 
sity of  closely  following  a  programme  can  not  be  overestimated. 
The  teacher  should  write  in  a  conspicuous  place  a  programme  for 
the  whole  school,  both  for  recitations  and  study.  The  same  pro- 
gramme will  not  answer  for  any  two  schools.  The  following, 
though  evidently  not  perfect,  is  intended  to  be  suggestive : 

The  school  can  be  separated  into  four  grades  on  the  subject  of 
Arithmetic.  The  abcdarians  may  be  called  the  counting  class  or 
D  Grade ;  the  class  in  addition  will  constitute  the  C  Grade ;  the 
class  in  division,  the  B  Grade  ;  and  the  class  in  fractions,  the  A 
Grade. 

We  give  on  the  next  page  a  Daily  Programme  of  Recitations 
and  Studies. 

EXPLANATIONS. 

1.  The  recitations  are  indicated  by  italic  type. 

2.  The  time  of  commencing  the  recitations  is  given  in  the  first 
column. 

3.  It  is  considered  that  the  History  classes  can  recite  at  the 
•ame  time ;  also  the  two  Geography  classes  at  the  same  time. 

4.  It  is  presumed  that  the  History  and  Physiology  lessons  can 
6e  prepared  out  of  school.     The  teacher  is  measurably  a  failure 
if  his  pupils  do  not  carry  their  books  home  with  them  and  study 
them  at  night. 

5.  It  is  thought  best  to  have  pupils  study  a  lesson  immediately 
after  recitation,  rather  than  just  before.    The  full  benefit  will  thus 
be  derived  from  the  preliminary  drills  which  are  given  by  every 
iuccessful  teacher. 


466 


APPENDIX, 


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WEO£^ 

flit? 


£&£f 
SSJ.SJ 

ffiifi 

?§§§•" 

p.a.0. 

OJ^OQ 


Reading 
Geograp 
Geograp 
Geograp 


P.  as.  2.  2 


o  ft  re  n> 
S?.£T.C: 
p  p  p  p 


Arithmetic 
Arithmetic. 
Arithmetic 
Grammar. 
Grammar. 


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CLg^^n- 
5'5'|  B  B 

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APPENDIX.  467 


OUTLINE  OF  PERCENTAGE. 


CONTRIBUTED  BY  UNA  HINKS. 

[The  following  outline  is  complete  and  sufficiently  clear,  we 
ihink,  to  be  understood,  if  carefully  studied.] 
I1  Definition.    That  division  of  Arithmetic  m  which  one  hundred 

is  taken  as  the  basis  of  computation. 
21  General  rule. 

I.  "  Determine  from  the  conditions  of  the  problem  that  quan- 
tity which  100  per  cent,  will  best  represent." 
II.  "  Reason  from  many  to  one  and  from  one  to  many,  as  the  na- 
ture of  the  question  may  require." 
31  Terms  employed. 
I8  Per  cent. 

1s  Definition :  a  term  derived  from  the  Latin  words  per 

centum,  signifying  by  the  hundred. 
2s  Symbol=$. 
23  Base. 

I3  Definition:  that  quantity  on  which  percentage  is  com- 
puted. 

23  Symbol=B. 
32  Rate. 
1s  Definition:  that  quantity  which  expresses  the  number 

of  hundredths  to  be  considered. 
2s  Symbol=R. 
4?  Percentage. 
I3  Definition :  that  part  of  the  base  which  is  indicated  bj 

the  per  cent. 
23  Symbol=P. 
52  Sum,  or  amount. 

1s  Definition :  the  base  plus  the  percentage. 
2s  Symbol=S.  or  Am't. 


468 


APPENDIX. 


6*  Difference. 

1*  Definition :  the  base  minus  the  percentage. 
2«  Symbol=D. 
41  Cases. 
1»  Case  I. 

I8  Quantities  given. 
1*  Base. 
2*  Bate. 

2»  Quantity  required :  Percentage. 
38  Formula:  P.=B.XR. 
4»  Example:  (Prob.  1,  p.  231,  French). 
I4  Statement :  Find  20%  of  960  bu. 
2*  Solution: 

Let  100^=960  bu. 
Then  1%=^  of  960  bu.=9.6  bu. 
20$=20  times  9.6  bu.,=192  bu. 
8*  Conclusion :  /.  20$,  of  960  bu.  is  192  b«. 
2»  Case  II. 

1s  Quantities  given. 
1*  Base. 
2*  Percentage. 

2s  Quantity  required :  Bate. 
3*  Formula:  R=P.-f-l$  of  B. 
4*  Example:  (Prob.  11,  p.  232,  French). 
1*  Statement:  17  is  what  per  cent,  of  51? 
2*  Solution: 

Let  51=100%. 
Then  1=^  of 
17=17  times 

3*  Conclusion:  /.  17  is  33ff%  of  51. 
3»  Case  III. 

I3  Quantities  given. 
1*  Rate. 
2*  Percentage. 

2s  Quantity  required :  Base. 
3*  Formula:  B.=P.-r-E. 
4s  Example :  (Prob.  18,  p.  233,  French). 
1*  Statement :  465  mi.  are  15$  of  how  many  mij 
2*  Solution : 

Let  100$=the  req.  num.  of  mi. 


APPENDIX.  469 

Since  15$=465  mi.,  l$>=iV  of  465  mL,=31  mi.,  and 
100$=100  times  31  mi.,=3100  mi. 

3*  Conclusion :  .-.  465  mi.  are  15$  of  3100  miles. 
Case  IV. 
1*  Quantities  given. 

1*  Base. 

2*  Bate. 

2s  Quantity  required :  Am't  or  diflf. 
38  Formulae. 

1*  When  the  amount  is  required :  Am't=B.X(l-f  &)• 

2*  When  the  difference  is  required:  Diff.=B.X(l— B.). 
4*  Examples:  (Prob.  25,  p.  234,  French). 

1*  When  the  amount  is  required. 

15  Statement :  Given,  the  B.=125,  R=25$,  to  find  the 

amount. 
25  Solution : 

I6  Preliminary  work :  100$+ 25$=125$= Am'k 
2s  Solution  proper: 
Let  100$=125, 
l%=T>rs  of  125=1.25. 
125%=125  times  1.25=137.5. 

3*  Conclusion :  .*.  137.5  is  the  amount  of  125  plus  25$, 
2*  When  the  difference  is  required. 

16  Statement:  Given,  the  B.=125,  R.=25$,  to  find  the 

difference. 
25  Solution. 

I6  Preliminary  work :  100$— 25$=75$. 
2*  Solution  proper. 
Let  100  $=125. 
Then    1  $=rJi7   of  125=1.25;    75$  =75  times 

1.25=94.75. 
35  Conclusion :  .-.  94.75  is  the  difference  of  125,  and  25 

per  cent. 
Case  V. 
I8  Quantities. 
1*  Kate. 

2*  Amount  or  difference. 
2s  Quantity  required :  Base. 
3»  Formulae. 

1*  When  the  amount  is  given. 


470  APPENDIX. 

2*  When  the  difference  is  given :  B.=D.-s-(l — B,). 
4s  Examples:  (Prob.  33,  p.  235,  French). 
1*  When  the  amount  is  given. 
1*  Statement :  267.5  is  7  per  cent,  more  than  what  nom* 

ber? 
2s  Solution: 

Let  100$>=the  required  number. 
10096+796=107$. 
Since  107$=267.5, 
I$=T£T  of  267.5=2.5; 
100#=100  times  2.5,=250. 
35  Conclusion:  /.  267.5  is  1%  more  that  250. 
2*  When  the  difference  is  given. 
I5  Statement:  267.5  is  7%  less  than  what  number? 
2*  Solution: 

Let  100$— the  required  number. 
100$— 7$=9396. 
Since  9396=267.5, 
1$=-^  of  267.5=2.8654- ; 
10096=100  times  2.865,+=2S6.5-K 
35  Conclusion :    /.  267.5  is  7$  less  than  286J. 
&  Applications. 
1*  Insurance. 

2*  Commission  and  brokerage. 
3*  Profit  and  loss. 
4»  Stocks. 

5*  Taxes  and  duties. 
6*  Interest. 
7*  Discount. 

8*  Government  securities. 
92  Banking. 
JO8  Exchange. 
}J*  Equation  of  payments. 


APPENDIX.  471 


CARTOGRAPHY. 


CONTRIBUTED  BY  DORA  LIEUELLEtf. 

MAP  DRAWING. 
I1  Materials : 
I2  Paper. 
I3  Flat-cap. 
2s  Brown. 
22  Kulers: 

I3  Straight — a  scale  of  twelve  or  fourteen  inches. 
2s  Flexible — a  piece  of  rattan  or  strip  of  zinc  will  answer. 
3a  Lead-pencil — Faber  No.  3,  with  an  eraser. 
4?  India-ink.     Prepare  it  by  dropping  four  or  five  drops  of 
rain-water  on  a  smooth  piece  of  glass,  then  holding 
the  stick  of  ink  between  the  fingers,  rub  the  glass  un- 
til the  water  is  black.    This  will  be  as  much  as  any 
one  will  use  in  two  hours. 
$  Rules : 

I2  Determine  the  scale. 
1s  The  map  should  never  be  drawn  the  same  size  of  the  one 

in  the  book. 
2s  One  and  a  half  times  this  is  a  convenient  size,  if  flat-cap 

be  used. 
2s  The  border-lines : 

I8  The  inner  lines  should  be  drawn  first. 
1*  Determine  the  exact  length  of  the  north  and  east  lines 

on  the  map. 

2*  Make  due  allowance  for  the  increased  or  decreased  size. 
3*  Draw  the  rectangle  and  ascertain  the  latitude  and 

longitude  of  its  angles. 
2s  The  outer  border-line. 

I4  Should  not  be  drawn  until  the  map  is  complete. 
2*  Should  be  heavier  than  other  lines. 


472  APPENDIX. 

38  The  center  line : 

I3  In  all  well  constructed  maps  there  is  a  straight  line  pass- 
ing from  north  to  south  through  the  center.    This  is  th» 
center  meridian,  and  should  be  drawn  and  numbered 
accordingly. 
4*  Parallels : 

1s  By  careful  measurement  determine  the  points  at  which 
each  cuts  the  inner  border  lines  and  the  center  merid- 
ian. 

2s  Using  the  flexible  ruler,  draw  a  line  through  these  points. 
33  Number  the  parallels  at  their  eastern  extremities. 
62  Meridians : 

I3  Select  the  parallel  nearest  the  center  of  the  map. 
23  Determine  the  points  at  which  the  meridians  east  of  the 
center  cut  the  inner  border-lines  and  this  parallel ; 
measure  the  same  distances  upon  these  lines  west  of 
the  center-line. 
38  Through  these  points  draw  the  meridians.    These  should 

be  numbered  at  their  northern  extremities. 
62  Outline: 

1s  Establish  the  key-points  in  the  rectangles  formed  by  the 

crossings  of  the  parallels   and  meridians. 
1*  Begin  at  the  north-west  corner  of  the  map,  determine 
the  latitude  and  longitude  of  a  town,  cape,  mouth  of 
of  a  river,  or  some  other  important  locality,  and 
place  it  in  the  corresponding  position  on  the  new  map. 
2*  Locate  a  number  of  these  points  at  convenient  inter- 
vals ;  if  the  coast  is  very  irregular,  many ;  if  com- 
paratively free  from  indentations,  few. 
3*  Carefully  observing  the  model,  unite  these  with  a  zig- 
zag line,  continuing  in  this  manner  until  the  entire 
outline  is  completed. 
7s  Islands: 

I8  These  may  be  drawn  in  the  same  manner  as  the  contL 

nents. 
2s  As  the  physical  and  political  features  are  added  to  the 

continent,  so  should  they  be  to  the  islands. 
3s  The  outlines  of  th'e  natural  divisions  and  reliefs  should 

be  retraced  in  ink. 
8*  Mountains: 


APPENDIX.  473 

I8  There  are  many  pretty  ways  to  represent  them.     Care 
should  be  taken  to  leave  no  one  in  doubt  concerning 
the  importance  of  the  range  or  peak,  as  it  may  be. 
1*  Single  rows  of  widely  scattered  "  fine  divergent "  lines 

represent  hills. 

2*  Double  rows,  mountain  ranges,  several  of  these  systems. 
3*  Several  heavy  strokes,  shaded  with  lighter  ones,  peaks. 
92  Deserts: 

I3  Determine  the  area  covered,  then  dot  with  a  pen. 
2s  The  oasis  should  not  be  colored. 
JO2  Lakes: 

I3  Determine  their  position  and  draw  their  outline. 

2s  The  coast  line  shaded  with  several  lines  adds  much  to 

the  effect. 
II8  Kivers: 

1s  Determine  the  most  important  systems. 
2s  Observe  through  what  parts  of  the  rectangles  they  wend 

their  way. 

33  Draw  the  important  branches,  noticing  that  each  widens 
at  its  mouth,  and  the  width  of  the  main  river  is  in- 
creased by  the  blending  of  their  waters. 
12s  Political  divisions : 

I3  Trace  the  boundaries  in  a  dotted  line  in  lead  or  ink. 
2s  Kepresent  the  capital  by  a  circle  within  a  circle,  the 
principal  cities  by  a  single  small  circle.     Other  plans 
will  suggest  themselves. 
13'  Key: 

I3  No  names  should  be  placed  upon  the  map.     If  the  mem- 
ory needs  an  aid  this  is  a  good  one. 

1*  Prepare  a  slip  of  paper— one-fourth  of  a  sheet  of  fools- 
cap folded  lengthwise. 

2*  Number  the  locality  in  lead,  on  the  map,  place  a  cor^ 
responding  number  on  the  Key,  after  it  the  name 
neatly  written. 
3*  After  completing  it  in  this  manner,  it  may  t>fc  fastened 

to  the  left  corner  at  the  bottom  of  the  map, 
31  Order: 

la  Indiana,  or  native  State. 
22  South  America. 
32  Australia. 
42  Africa. 
S2  Asia. 


474  APPENDIX. 

62  Europe. 

I4  Empires. 
2*  Kepublics. 
34  Kingdoms. 
T2  North  America. 
82  United  States. 

1*  Remark :— For  this,  Bristol  board  is  used. 
The  foregoing  rules  and  remarks  are  designed  to  aid  those 
who  wish  a  course  in  map-drawing,  where,  as  we  understand  it, 
neatness,  in  general  appearance,  and  accuracy  in  execution  are  de- 
sired as  well  as  knowledge  of  location.  We  would  not  have  it  so, 
but  should  any  one  desire  the  latter  only  this  might  seem  too  tedi- 
ous ;  to  such  we  recommend  the  more  expeditious  process — sketch- 
ing— which  is  made  comparatively  simple  by  the  use  of  the  par- 
allels and  meridians. 


APPENDIX.  475 


SCALE  OF  CRITICISM. 


CONTRIBUTED  BY  F.   P.   ADAMS. 

The  following  is  a  scale  of  criticism  for  use  in  Khetoric  and 
Literature  Classes  of  the  Central  Normal  College.  The  teacher,  in 
looking  over  the  essays,  notes  the  mistakes  by  the  use  of  figures ; 
thus,  1  placed  over  a  word  denotes  incorrect  spelling ;  2,  wrong 
use  of  capital ;  27,  obsolete  word,  etc. 

It  is  not  supposed  that  every  teacher  will  find  use  for  the  entire 
scale;  but  it  may  assist  some  in  making  out  one  for  themselves. 
Only  a  few  of  the  points  should  be  used  in  criticising  the  essays  of 
beginners. 

I.      ORTHOGRAPHY,   CAPITALS,  ETC. 

1.  Spelling.  5.  Word  divided. 

2.  Capitals.  6.  Paragraphing. 

3.  Compound.  7.  Penmanship. 

4.  Syllable  divided. 

II.      PUNCTUATION. 

8.  For  sense.  13.  For  style  of  type. 

9.  For  abbreviation.  14.  For  divided  word. 

JO.  For  possessive.  15.  For  omission  of  letters,  words, 

11.  For  quotation.  or  sentences. 

12.  For  references. 

m.    PURITY. 

The  faults  against  purity  are  called  barbarisms. 

16.  Archaisms:  selection  of  obsolete  words;  as,  list,  wot,  trow. 

17.  Alienisms :  selection  of  words  not  domesticated  in  general 
use ;  as,  bizarre. 

18.  Provincialisms  :  selections  of  words  used  only  in  certain  lo- 
calities ;  as  tote,  critter,  "  right  smart." 


476  APPENDIX. 

19.  Technicalities :  selection  of  words  used  only  by  a  particu- 
lar class  or  profession. 

20.  Slang;   as.  chuck  full,  go      24.  Hybrid;  as,  hemicircle. 

it,  cahoot.  25.  Faulty  formation ;  as,  rcluo- 

21.  Newly-coined  words;  as,  tate. 

shootist.  26.  Vulgar  contraction;  as,  AowV 

22.  Faulty  suffix.  for  haven't. 

23.  Faulty  prefix. 

IV.      PROPRIETY. 

(1)  Lexical 

27.  Words  in  obsolete  use ;  as, 

"  Be  buried  quick  with  her." 

28.  Words  of  equivocal  meaning ;  as, 

"  This  translation  was  overlooked  by  many  careful  scholars." 

29.  Words  of  provincial  meaning;  as, 

"Directly  the  queen  came  the  performances  commenced." 

30.  Words  in  mixed  imagery;  as, 

"  Hope,  the  balm  of  life,  darts  a  ray  through  the  thickest 
gloom." 

31.  Synonym  with  wrong  shade  of  meaning ;  as, 

"  Tolerate  me  to  introduce  my  friend,  Mr.  Johnson." 

32.  Synonym,  or  other  word,  inappropriate  to  style  of  dis- 
course; as, 

"The  distinguished  arbiters  met,  and  after  a  long  chat, 
agreed  upon  the  award." 

33.  Wrong  signification. 

(2)  OramifiaticaL 

34.  Syntax  faulty. 

35.  Wrong  inflection  ;  as, 

"  The  clothes  was  made  to  order." 
"  The  boys  likes  to  play  marbles." 

36.  Wrong  element ;  as, 

"  He  spoke  firstly  of  virtue ;  second  of  righteousness." 

37.  Double  use  of  an  element ;  as, 

4 'These  measures  we  have  considered  carefully  and  are  turn 
presented  for  your  review." 

38.  Ellipsis;  as, 

"  I  had  three  sons  all  died  in  a  year." 

39.  Pleonasm;  as, 
"John,  he  knows." 


APPENDIX.  477 

40.  Tautology;  as, 

" He  works  when  he  does  work" 

41.  Redundancy.    This  is  the  use  of  more  words  than  are  nec- 
essary. 

V.    CONCORD. 

42.  Su  bject- words ;  as, 

"  He  is  the  man  wham  they  think  would  make  a  good  leader.' 

43.  Predicate-words;  as, 

"  Neither  of  them  are  sociable." 

44.  Pronouns;  as, 

"  Each  has  their  special  work." 

45.  Appositives;  as, 

"The  work  was  John's  —  him  whom  they  had  already 
«u«t  off." 

46.  Object-words;  as, 

"  Between  you  and  I." 

47.  Expression  of  time  ;  as, 

"  They  would  join  his  party  if  they  can." 

VI.   ARRANGEMENT. 

48.  Principal  elements.  64.  Phrases. 

49.  Adjectives.  55.  Parts  of  complex  sentence. 

50.  Adverbials.  56.  Members  of  compound  sen- 

51.  Modals.  tence. 

62.  Objectives.  57.  Promiscuous  words. 

63.  Pronouns. 

VH.      PRECISION  AND  ENERGY. 

68.  Ambiguous  word  or  64.  Ellipsis  obscure. 

phrase.  65.  Clearness. 

59.  Equivocal  word  or  66.  Ambiguous  antecedent. 

phrase.  67.  Infinitive  separated  from  its 

60.  Faulty  definition.  sign. 

61.  Deficiency.  68.  Splitting  a  particle. 

62.  Strength. 

63.  Not  specific. 

69.  Uncertain  relation  of  a  modifying  word,  phrase  or  sentence. 

70.  Omission  or  insertion  of  connective  incorrect. 

71.  Omission  or  insertion  of  the  article  incorrect 

72.  Bad  choice  of  word  or  phrase. 

73.  Verbosity. 

74.  Feeble  ending. 


478  APPENDIX. 

75.  Feebleness  of  expression. 

76.  Commonplace. 

77.  Lack  of  symmetry ;  as, 

" The  trader  came  to  buy  stock  and  for  trading" 

78.  Anti-climax. 

79.  Antithesis  faulty. 

80.  Negative  form  of  expression. 

VIII.     FIGURES. 

81.  Mixed  imagery. 

82.  Inappropriate  metaphor. 

83.  Trite  simile. 

84.  Unreasonable  figure. 

IX.      PROMISCUOUS  CRITICISMS. 

85.  Abrupt  transition.  93.  Method. 

86.  Euphony.  94.  Selection. 

87.  Harmony.  95.  Completeness. 

88.  Elegance.  96.  Truthfulness. 

89.  Naturalness.  97.  Business  appearance. 

90.  Extravagance.  98.  Carelessness. 

91.  Continuousness.  99.  Promptitude. 

92.  Unity.  100.  Miscellaneous. 


APPBNDIX.  '      479 


GRAMMAR. 


CONTRIBUTED  BY  F.  P.  ADAMS. 

Shall  the  parsing  lessons  be  written  f 

On  every  favorable  occasion  we  declaim  against  the  hum-drum, 
sing-song  plan  that  some  teachers  follow  of  having  the  recitations 
in  grammar  made  up  wholly  of  the  repetition  of  committed  rules 
and  definitions  and  declensions  and  oral  parsings.  Some  of  the 
lessons,  or  even  a  part  of  every  lesson,  may  be  oral ;  but  no  pupil 
can  afford  to  be  without  the  great  advantages  that  result  from 
written  lessons.  By  writing  the  lessons,  (1)  the  pupils  will  be 
more  likely  to  prepare  the  entire  work  assigned ;  (2)  they  will 
work  with  greater  care ;  (3)  they  will  accustom  themselves  to  de- 
finiteness  and  accuracy  of  thought ;  (4)  they  will  improve  in  (a) 
reading,  (6)  writing,  (c)  spelling,  (d)  punctuation,  (e)  capitaliza- 
tion, (/)  and  the  general  appearance  of  their  manuscripts. 

We  have  tried  this  in  crowded  district  schools,  and  we  feel  safe  in 
•aying  that  it  pays  in  economy  of  time,  and  yields  rich  results  in 
the  points  spoken  of  above. 

Infinitives  and  Participles. 

To  master  infinitives  and  participles  is  considered  by  many  the 
most  difficult  task  connected  with  grammar.  It  is  perplexing  and 
amusing  to  examine  and  compare  the  views  of  a  few  different  au- 
thors with  reference  to  these  difficult  parts  of  speech.  We  have 
not  space  to  give,  at  present,  the  results  of  such  an  investigation. 
The  best  disposition  to  be  made  of  both  infinitives  and  participles 
is  that  made  by  Holbrook,  Whitney  and  Pierce.  This  disposition 
will  be  understood  by  the  following  rule:  "Infinitives  and  Par- 
ticiples have  the  constructions  of  nouns,  adjectives  and  adverbs." 

29 


480  APPENDIX. 


OUTLINE. 

Infinitives : 
I1  Constructions. 
I2  Of  a  noun. 
1s  Subject  of  a  verb, 

1*  "  To  live  in  hearts  we  leave  behind  IB  not  to  die." 
2s  In  predicate  with  a  verb, 

1*  To  die  is  to  slzep. 
33  Object  of  a  verb, 

I4  We  want  to  go  to  school. 
4s  Object  of  a  preposition, 

I4  He  is  about  to  go. 
58  In  apposition 
I4  With  a  word, 

I5  The  task  to  sweep  the  streets  was  impowrt. 
24  With  a  phrase, 

I5  To  shuffle  off  this  mortal  coil,  to  cease,  is  not  < 
2s  Of  an  adverb 
1s  Modifying 
I4  A  verb, 

I5  He  came  to  get  grapes. 
24  An  adjective, 

I5  Let  us  be  content  to  toork. 
34  An  adverb, 

I5  He  labored  enough  to  deserve  It. 
39  Of  an  adjective 
1s  Limiting 
I4  A  noun, 

I5  There  is  a  time  to  mourn. 
&  A  pronoun, 

I5  She  appears  to  be  coming. 

We  have  endeavored  in  the  outline  given  above,  to  show  that 
every  infinitive  must  have  the  construction  either  of  an  adjective^ 
of  an  adverb,  or  of  a  noun.  The  same  position  will  hold  for  par- 
ticiples. 

If  a  participle  limits  a  noun  or  a  pronoun  it  has  the  construc- 
tion or  nature  of  an  adjective,  since  that  is  the  office  that  an  ad- 
jective performs. 

If  it  modifies  an  adjective,  an  adverb  or  a  verb,  then  we  say  it 
has  the  construction  of  an  adverb.  When  the  participle  is  the 
subject  of  a  verb,  the  object  of  a  transitive  verb  in  the  active 


APPENDIX.  481 

roice,  the  object  of  a  preposition,  or  in  apposition  with  a  norm  ar 
phrase,  then  we  say  it  has  the  construction  of  a  noun. 
The  following  outline  shows  this  view  in  condensed  form 
Participial  constructions : 
I1  Of  a  noun. 
1*  Subject  of  a  verb. 
&  Object  of  a  transitive  verb. 
38  Object  of  a  preposition. 
4*  In  apposition. 
I3  With  a  noun. 
23  With  a  phrase. 
21  Of  an  adjective. 
la  Limiting. 
I8  A  noun. 
2s  A  pronoun. 
2*  In  predicate. 

1s  With  an  intransitive  verb. 
2s  With  a  passive  verb. 
ff  Of  an  adverb, 
I1  Limiting 
1*  A  verb. 
1*  Transitive. 
I5  Active. 
2s  Passive. 
2*  Intransitive. 
2*  An  adverb. 
S8  An  adjective. 

ANALYSIS. 

Sentences : 
I1  Classes. 

1s  As  to  structure. 
1s  Simple. 

1*  Complete — one  whose  verb  is  finite. 
2*  Abridged — one  whose  verb  is  infinite. 
2s  Complex. 
1*  Principal. 
2*  Subordinate. 
8?  Compound. 
1*  Members. 

I5  Leading  the  first  member. 
2P  Co-ordinate — any  other  than  the  first  member. 


482  APPENDIX. 

2*  As  to  use. 
1»  Declarative. 
2*  Imperative. 
3*  Interrogative. 
4*  Exclamatory. 
21  Elements. 
1s  Principal. 
1*  Subject. 
1*  Simple. 
2*  Complex. 
3*  Compound. 
2?  Predicate. 
1*  Parts. 
I6  Copula. 
2s  Attribute. 
2*  Kinds. 
I8  Simple. 
2s  Complex. 
35  Compound. 
2?  Subordinate. 
I8  Kinds. 
1*  As  to  structure. 

I5  Simple— one  whose  baa*  if  jumodified. 
2s  Complex— one  whose  base  is  modified. 

35  Compound — two  or  mere  simple  or  complex  element* 

of  equal  rank,  joir/ed  by  co-ordinate  connectives. 
2*  As  to  relation. 

I8  Adjective — one  wtioh  modifies  a  noun  or  pronoun. 
2s  Adverbial — one   which    modifies  anything    but  a 

noun  or  proa  an,  and  is  not  the  object  of  a  transi' 

tive  verb  in  the  active  voice. 
8*  Objective — th.,  object  of  a  transitive  active  verb. 
48  Subjective — objective  subject  of  an  infinitive. 
3*  As  to  base. 

I8  First  cJass-^rftde  whose  base  is  a  single  word. 
2*  Second  cla*s — one  whose  base  is  a  preposition  and 

its  object  or  an  infinitive. 

36  Third  claw — a  complete  subordinate  sentence. 

GUIDE  FOB  ANALYSIS. 

L  Bead  tke  sentence. 


APPENDIX. 


483 


2.  Classify  it  - 


(Simple, 
Complex, 
Compound. 


as  to  use. 


f  Declarative, 
I  Imperative, 
1  Interrogative 
t  Exclamatoryl 


3.  Give  the  complex  subject. 

4.  Give  the  simple  subject. 

5.  Point  out  its  modifiers. 

{Simple, 
Complex, 
Compound. 


6.  Classify  them 


as  to  relation. 


f  Adjective, 
I  Adverbial, 
1  Objective, 
[Subjective. 


C  First  class, 

s  to  base.  \  Second  class, 
I  Third  class. 

7.  Give  the  base  of  each  modifier  and  classify  its  modifiers. 

8.  Give  the  complex  predicate. 

9.  Give  the  simple  predicate. 
10.  Point  out  its  modifiers. 


"J  as  to  structure, 
V 


11.  Classify  them  >•  as  to  relation, 

J  as  to  base. 

12.  Give  the  base  and  classify  its  modifiers. 

The  class  should  copy  this  guide,  be  drilled  on  it,  and  thai 
recite  the  following  outline,  after  which  it  should  be  written  OB 
the  board. 

as  to  rank, 

V  •-» 

{Simple, 
Complex, 
Compound. 


Kinds  of  Elements.  - 


as  to  relation, 


f  Adjective. 
I  Adverbial, 
j  Objective, 
I  Subjective. 


f  First  class, 

as  to  base,  -j  Second  class, 
I  Third  class. 


484 


APPENDIX. 


Kinds  of  Sentences.  - 


f  Simple, 

as  to  form,  j  Complex, 
(.  Compound. 

{Declarative, 
Imperative, 
Interrogative, 
Exclamatorj. 


APPENDIX.  485 


OUTLINE  ON  THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF 
TEACHING. 


The  following  outline  on  the  Objects  of  the  Recitation  and 
Qualifications  of  the  Teacher  was  obtained  in  the  teachers'  train- 
ing class,  Central  Normal  College,  Danville,  Indiana  : 

I.      OBJECTS  OF  RECITATION. 

1.  Examination  of  written  work  prepared  by  pupils. 

Topics, 


Keviews,  etc. 

3.  Imparting  additional  information. 

1.  By  Illustrations. 

2.  By  Conversation. 

3.  By  Explanation. 

4.  By  Demonstration,  etc. 

4.  Cultivation  of— 

1.  Accurate  and  ready  expression. 
[  Spelling, 
« 


1.  In  writing, 

[  Syntax,  etc. 

o   T«  '„  ^«v:««  /  By  wearing  off  embarrassment. 

2.  In  speaking,  |  ^h  notef  and  without 

2.  Attention. 

1.  By  reporting  what  teacher  or  pupils  have  explained 

or  illustrated. 

2.  By  mutual  criticism. 

1.  In  walking  across  the  floor. 

2.  In  rising. 


3.  Good  manners, 


3.  In  sitting. 

4.  In  standing. 


486  APPENDIX. 

r  Interest. 

5.  Arousing  J   Love  for  study. 

Independent  thought. 
[  Investigation. 

r  Of  the  timid. 

6.  Encouragement «  Of  the  slow. 

I  Of  the  diligent. 

7.  Direction  of  the  pupils'  work. 

8.  Mastery  of  self. 

QUALIFICATIONS  OP  THE  TEACHER 

I1  Physical. 

12  Good  health. 
22  Good  eyes. 
32  Good  ears. 
42  Good  voice. 
&  Good  looks. 

21  Intellectual. 

13  Natural. 

I8  Good  common  sense. 

1*  Adapting  one's  self  to  circumstances,  both  in  teaching 
and  government. 

2*  In  familiarity  with  patrons  and  pupils. 

3*  By  not  enacting  rules  which  can  not  be  carried  into 
execution. 

4*  By  not  under  or  overtasking  the  pupils. 

54  By  not  pandering  to  prejudice. 

6*  By  not  making  a  hobby  of  any  single  branch,  but  by 
making  a  hobby  of  all. 

74  By  not  flattering  or  disparaging. 

8*  Teaching  by  example  as  well  as  by  precept. 
2s  Cheerfulness. 
33  Firmness. 
4*  Patience. 
53  Sociability. 

6s  A  love  for  the  work  and  children. 
73  Power  of  comparison. 
8s  Aptness  to  teach. 
22  Acquired : 

I3  Knowledge  of  human  nature. 

2s  Knowledge  of  the  common  branches. 

33  Knowledge  of  sciences. 

43  General  knowledge  of  history. 


APPENDIX.  487 

6*  General  knowledge  of  government. 
63  General  knowledge  of  miscellaneous  subjects. 
31  Moral: 

I1  Honesty — with  God  and  man. 
Temperate  in  all  things. 

PERIODS  OF  THE  MIND'S  DEVELOPMENT. 

I1  Objective,  in  which  the  child  is  to  be  taught  by  means  of  ob- 
jects. The  length  of  this  period  depends  upon  the  natural 
ability  of  the  child  and  the  amount  and  quality  of  culti- 
vation the  mind  receives.  The  question  during  this  period 
is,  What? 

21  Transition,  during  which  the  change  is  made  gradual ty  from 
the  objective  to  the  subjective.  Objects  should  not  be  ex- 
cluded during  this  period.  We  now  have  the  question, 
Why? 

31  Subjective,  in  which  the  mind  can  grasp  abstract  subjects. 
In  which  it  can  divide  a  subject  into  its  parts  and  study 
them  singly.  Illustrations  from  objects  not  before  the  eye 
can  be  used  successfully. 

WIE  PERCEPTIVE,   REFLECTIVE   AND    RETENTIVE    FACULTIES    DE- 
FINED. 

The  perceptives  are  those  faculties  with  which  we  observe  the 
position,  form,  size,  color,  motion,  etc.,  of  objects. 

The  retentive  faculties  are  those  by  which  we  retain  the  impres- 
sions made  upon  our  minds  by  the  exercise  of  the  perceptives. 

The  reflectives  are  those  faculties  by  the  workings  of  which  one 
is  able  to  compare  and  contrast  things  which  have  come  through 
the  perceptives  and  retentives. 

TRAINING  THE  PERCEPTIVE  AND  RETENTIVE  FACULTIES. 

I1  Composition. 

V  Have  pupils  write  what  the  teacher  does. 
23  Narrate  what  takes  place  during  a  recitation. 
3a  Tell  about  twelve  things  you  saw  on  the  road  to  school. 
42  Tell  about  what  happened  during  holidays  or  Sunday. 
57  Listen  to  a  story  read  and  then  reproduce  it. 
6*  Description  of  some  object  placed  before  the  pupils. 
7f  Description  of  some  object  previously  observed  by  the 
pupils. 


488  APPENDIX. 


TRAINING   THE    PERCEPTIVE    FACULTIES    IK  GEOGRAPHY. 

1.  Develop  the  ideas  of  boundary  and  direction  by  arranging 

objects  on  the  table. 

2.  Drill  on  the  direction  of  objects  in  the  school-room. 

3.  Map  the  school-room. 

4.  Map  the  school  grounds. 

5.  Map  the  adjoining  farms. 

6.  Map  the  house  and  yard  of  your  homo. 

7.  Map  the  township. 

8.  Map  the  county. 

9.  Map  the  state. 


APPENDIX.  489 


TOPIC  LIST  FOR  THE  STUDY  OF  GEOGRAPHY. 


CONTRIBUTED  BY   ANNIE  M.  SHERRILL. 


Write  the  list  on  the  board,  and  have  each  pupil  copy  it  for  use 
during  the  term.  In  studying  the  text  of  the  several  countries 
assign  a  certain  number  of  topics  to  be  investigated  and  reported 
upon  at  each  recitation,  instead  of  assigning  the  questions  in  the 
book. 

1.  Locality. 

2.  Boundaries. 

3.  Latitude  and  Longitude. 

4    s.,rf«/w     /  No-  °*  feet  above  tn«  sea. 
rface'   I  Mountainous  or  flat 

5.  Watersheds. 

6.  Mountains. 

7.  Volcanoes. 

8.  Plateaus. 

9.  Plains. 

10.  Deserts. 

11.  Peninsulas. 

12.  Isthmuses. 

13.  Capes. 

14.  Islands. 

15.  Oceans. 

16.  Seas. 

17.  Gulfs. 

18.  Bays. 

CO«M»«*  what? 


10 

IS,  ,  What? 


20.  Sounds. 

01     nv         i       /Connect  what? 

21.  Channels,    (  g^^  what? 


490  APPENDIX. 


Situation. 

{§£. 

Stream 


22.  Lakes. 


23.  Kivers. 

24.  Climate. 

25.  Soil. 

26.  Productions. 

27.  Animals. 

28.  Exports. 

29.  Imports. 

30.  Commerce. 

31.  Area. 

32.  Population. 

33.  Nationality. 

34.  State  of  Society. 

35.  Political  Divisions. 

36.  Capitals. 

37.  Chief  Towns. 

38.  Government. 

39.  Industries. 

40.  Eeligion. 

41.  Education. 

42.  Languages. 

43.  Facilities  for  traveling. 

44.  History. 

45.  Curiosities. 

{Literature. 
Science. 
Art 


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Page's  Theory  and  Practice  of  Teaching. 
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50c.  Cloth,  $1.  The  teachers'  standby. 

Roark's  Outline  of  Pedagogy.  A  Working 

Manual.     Aptly  and  briefly  described 

as  an  indispensable  tool  for  ' '  teachers 

in  the  trenches."   Interleaved  for  notes.     75  cent?. 
Stout's  Manual  of  Psychology.     Introduced  in  its  first 

year    into     more    than    fourscore  of    colleges    and 

universities  in  this  country  and  in  Canada.       $1.50. 
Stout's  Groundwork  of  Psychology.    $1.25.    New. 
The  Perceptionalist      Hamilton's  Mental  Science.      By 

special  typographical  arrangement  adapted  to  either 

a  longer  or  shorter  course.     $2.00. 

Mackenzie's  Manual  of  Ethics.  The  most  successful 
text-book  on  ethics  ever  published.  Adopted  and 
used  in  over  two  hundred  Colleges,  Universities  and 
Normal  Schools.  New,  Fourth  Edition.  $1.50.- 

Continental  Copy  Books*  Numbers  i  to  7.  75  cent*  dozen* 


" 


AND    TO 
OVERDU£: 


YC  04083 


